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Abstract:
This article (1) develops a social psychological decision-making model that describes the methods of influence through which interrogation proceeds and identifies the factors leading the guilty and the innocent to decide to confess; (2) Specifies the sequence and effects of the tactical moves through which interrogators influence suspects decisions; (3) Describes the variety of types of confessions and their differentiating characteristics; and (4) Develops and illustrates through case materials of a classification system for categorizing types of statements made in response to interrogation. Together, the decision-making model and the expanded classification system provide a framework for explaining the process of police interrogation as it is practiced in the United States.

Criminal procedure, criminal justice, law enforcement, police interrogations, false confessions

Abstract:
In the last two decades, hundred of convicted prisoners have been exonerated by DNA and non-DNA evidence, revealing that police-induced false confessions are a leading cause of the wrongful conviction of the innocent. This article reviews the empirical research on the causes and correlates of false confessions. After looking at the three sequential processes that are responsible for the elicitation of false confessions - misclassification, coercion and contamination - this article reviews the three psychologically distinct types of false confession (voluntary, compliant and persuaded) and then discusses the consequences of introducing false confession evidence in the criminal justice system. The article concludes with a brief discussion of the implications of empirical research for reducing the number of false confessions and improving the accuracy of confession evidence that is introduced against a defendant at trial.

false confession, wrongful conviction, empirical research

Abstract:
A steadily increasing tide of literature has documented the existence and causes of false confession as well as the link between false confession and wrongful conviction of the innocent. This literature has primarily addressed three issues: the manner in which false confessions are generated by police interrogation, individual differences in susceptibility to interrogative influence, and the role false confessions have played in documented wrongful convictions of the innocent. Although the specific mechanisms through which interrogation tactics can induce false confessions, and through which they can exert enhanced influence on vulnerable individuals have been widely addressed in this literature, the processes through which false confessions, once obtained by police, may lead to wrongful conviction have remained largely unaddressed. This article addresses this gap in the literature, examining seven psychological processes linking false confession to wrongful conviction and failures of post-conviction relief: (1) powerful biasing effects of the confession itself, including incorporated "misleading specialized knowledge" (inside crime-relevant knowledge displayed by the suspect in the false confession, but acquired through outside sources (such as the interrogator) rather than in the course of the commission of the crime); (2) tunnel-vision and confirmation biases, (3) motivational biases, (4) emotional influences on thinking and behavior; (5) institutional influences on evidence production and decision-making; and inadequate context for evaluation of claims of innocence, including (6) inadequate or incorrect relevant knowledge, and (7) progressively constricting relevant evidence. We discuss reciprocal influences of these mechanisms and their biasing impact on the perceptions and behaviors of suspects, investigators, prosecution and defense attorneys, juries, and trial and appellate judges.

false confession, wrongful conviction, police interrogation

Abstract:
By questionnaire, 631 police investigators reported on their interrogation beliefs and practices - the first such survey ever conducted. Overall, participants estimated that they were 77 percent accurate at truth and lie detection, that 81 percent of suspects waive Miranda rights, that the mean length of interrogation is 1.6 hours, and that they elicit self-incriminating statements from 68 percent of suspects, 4.78 percent from innocents. Overall, 81 percent felt that interrogations should be recorded. As for self-reported usage of various interrogation tactics, the most common were to physically isolate suspects, identify contradictions in suspects' accounts, establish rapport, confront suspects with evidence of their guilt, and appeal to self-interests. Results were discussed for their consistency with prior research, policy implications, and methodological shortcomings.

criminal procedure, criminal justice, law enforcement, interrogation tactics

Abstract:
This article focuses on the interrogatory stage of police investigation, considering (1) how and why the rather muddled legal theory authorizing deceptive interrogation developed; (2) what deceptive interrogation practices police, in fact, engage in; and  a far more difficult question  (3) whether police should ever employ trickery and deception during interrogation in a democratic society valuing fairness in its judicial process.

Criminal procedure, criminal justice, law enforcement, interrogation techniques

Abstract:
This article studies the precise impact that false confessions have on criminal defendants. Using evidence from sixty cases of police-induced false confessions in which the defendant's confession is not supported by any physical or reliable inculpatory evidence, the authors explore the impact of unreliable confession evidence on criminal justice officials, the jurors and the criminal justice system.

The article demonstrates that a trier of fact may be so biased by a false confession that it will likely favor prosecution and conviction despite strong evidence of innocence, often leading to a defendant's incarceration and even death. Additionally, the article finds that, despite Miranda, contemporary law enforcement personnel continue to employ coercive and manipulative methods.

To prevent miscarriages of justice caused by false confessions, prosecutors, judges, and juries should carefully scrutinize and evaluate a suspect's post-admission narrative against the known facts of the crime. The article also asserts that mandatory video- or audio-recording of police interrogations would greatly decrease the risk of harm caused by false confessions by reducing the use of psychologically coercive interrogation methods.

Criminal procedure, Miranda, false confessions, criminal justice system, empirical legal research, interrogations, taping, recording, wrongful convictions

Abstract:
This article takes the reader inside the interrogation room in order to analyze the characteristics, context and outcome of police interrogation practices in America. This study is the first in over twenty-five years to examine routine police interrogation practices in America through field research. The data is based on nine months of observation in a major, urban police department involving 122 interrogations and 45 detectives. It also relies on 60 videotaped custodial interrogations from two additional police departments.

The article attempts to fill in the gap left by criminal interrogation scholars who have failed to employ empirical research on police interrogation practices in their studies. The article asserts that the techniques that Miranda was designed to address, such as undermining suspects' confidence in their denials and confronting suspects with fabricated evidence of their guilt, continue to be used in contemporary American police interrogations. It also suggests that interrogators have become increasingly successful at eliciting incriminating information from custodial suspects in the last thirty years. These findings confirm that interrogation methods exert a fateful effect on criminal cases at every subsequent stage in the criminal justice system.

Criminal procedure, Miranda, law enforcement, interrogation techniques, empirical legal research

Abstract:
This article argues that mandatory electronic recording of police interrogation is a policy reform for which the overwhelming benefits and minimal costs can no longer be denied. By creating an objective and reviewable record, electronic recording promotes truth-finding in the criminal process, relegates "swearing contests" to the past, and saves scarce resources at multiple levels of the criminal justice system. Electronic recording of interrogations will not only benefit police and prosecutors by increasing the accuracy of confessions and convictions, and thus better protect public safety, but it will also reduce the number of police-induced false confessions and the wrongful convictions they cause.

criminal procedure, criminal justice, electronic recording, law enforcement, interrogation

Abstract:
Confessions are among the most powerful forms of evidence introduced in a court of law, even when they are contradicted by other case evidence and contain significant errors. Police, prosecutors, judges, jurors, and the media all tend to view confessions as self-authenticating and see them as dispositive evidence of guilt. This article uses the Central Park Jogger case as a primary example of how defendants are vulnerable to erroneous convictions based almost entirely on their false confessions.

This article points out the failures of the legal tests governing admissibility of confessions, examining voluntariness jurisprudence and corroboration rules. The article also analyzes the social science research of the past twenty years and the nature and scope of the problem of false confessions in the post-DNA era. The authors argue that recording the entire custodial interrogation of suspects should be a prerequisite of any new legal test inquiring into the reliability of a confession. The article also urges policy makers to require judges to hold pretrial reliability hearings separate from pretrial voluntariness hearings and proposes a new standard for judges to apply when assessing whether a confession is reliable.

Criminal procedure, false confessions, DNA testing, interrogations, law enforcement, electronic recording, voluntariness jurisprudence, corroboration rules, Central Park Jogger case

Abstract:
This article describes and explains changes in the nature of police interrogation that have occurred during the last half-century in America. The author argues that, during the last fifty to sixty years, there has been a profound transformation in the methods, strategies, and consciousness of police interrogators. Psychological deception has replaced physical coercion as one of the most salient, defining features of contemporary police interrogation. Where once custodial interrogation routinely involved physical violence and duress, police questioning now consists of subtle and sophisticated psychological ploys and techniques that rely on manipulation, persuasion, and deception for their efficacy. Not only do police now openly and strongly condemn the use of physical force during interrogation, they also believe that psychological tactics are far more effective at eliciting confessions. The use of deception has, in effect, become a functional alternative to the use of coercion. With this change, police power in the context of interrogation has acquired new meaning: it has become more subtle, more invasive, and more total, effectuated through psychological manipulation rather than physical violence.

Criminal procedure, criminal justice, law enforcement, interrogation techniques

Abstract:
In recent years, numerous individuals who confessed to and were convicted of serious felony crimes have been released from prison - some after many years of incarceration - and declared factually innocent. Often, these individuals are freed as a result of DNA tests that were not possible at the time of arrest, prosecution, and conviction. DNA testing has also exonerated numerous individuals who confessed to serious crimes before their cases went to trial. In this article, we analyze 125 recent cases of proven interrogation-induced false confessions (i.e., cases in which indisputably innocent individuals confessed to crimes they did not commit) and how these cases were treated by officials in the criminal justice system.

This article has three goals. First, we provide and analyze basic demographic, legal, and case-specific descriptive data from these 125 cases. This is significant because this is the largest cohort of interrogation-induced false confession cases ever identified and studied in the research literature.

Second, we analyze the role that (false) confession evidence played in these cases and how the defendants in these cases were treated by the criminal justice system. In particular, this article focuses on how criminal justice officials and triers-of-fact respond to confession evidence, whether it biases their evaluations and overwhelms other evidence (particularly evidence of innocence), and how likely false confessions are to lead to the wrongful arrest, prosecution, conviction, and incarceration of the innocent. Analysis of the aforementioned questions leads to the conclusion that the problem of interrogation-induced false confession in the American criminal justice system is far more significant than previously supposed. Furthermore, the problem of interrogation-induced false confessions has profound implications for the study of miscarriages of justice as well as the proper administration of justice.

Third, and finally, this article suggests that several promising policy reforms, particularly mandatory electronic recording of police interrogations, will minimize the number of false confessions and thereby inject a much needed dose of justice into the American criminal justice system.

Criminal procedure, false confessions, DNA testing, law enforcement, interrogations, taping, recording, wrongful arrest, wrongful conviction

Abstract:
Situational factors - in the form of interrogation tactics - have been reported to unduly influence innocent suspects to confess. This study assessed jurors’ perceptions of these factors and tested whether expert witness testimony on confessions informs jury decision-making. In Study 1, jurors rated interrogation tactics on their level of coerciveness and likelihood that each would elicit true and false confessions. Most jurors perceived interrogation tactics to be coercive and likely to elicit confessions from guilty, but not from innocent suspects. This result motivated Study 2 in which an actual case involving a disputed confession was used to assess the influence of expert testimony on jurors’ perceptions and evaluations of interrogations and confession evidence. The results revealed an important influence of expert testimony on mock-jurors decisions.

interrogation techniques, jury decision-making, expert testimony, false confessions

Abstract:
Using empirical evidence from police interrogations in a few national and international jurisdictions, this article studies the dynamics of confessions in the American criminal justice system. The article documents the process of interrogation and explains why police-induced false confessions, like truthful ones, are rational responses to the influence tactics and manipulation strategies that American police use during interrogation. The article argues that false confessions occur when interrogation tactics are not understood and are misused by law enforcement, most often due to negligence or improper training. Finally, the article discusses how to better identify false confessions and decrease the miscarriages of justice caused by them.

Criminal procedure, law enforcement, false confessions, taping, recording, interrogation techniques, empirical legal research

Abstract:
Recent DNA exonerations have shed light on the problem that people sometimes confess to crimes they did not commit. Drawing on police practices, laws concerning the admissibility of confession evidence, core principles of psychology, and forensic studies involving multiple methodologies, this White Paper summarizes what is known about police-induced confessions. In this review, we identify suspect characteristics (e.g., adolescence; intellectual disability; mental illness; and certain personality traits), interrogation tactics (e.g., excessive interrogation time; presentations of false evidence; and minimization), and the phenomenology of innocence (e.g., the tendency to waive Miranda rights) that influence confessions as well as their effects on judges and juries. This article concludes with a strong recommendation for the mandatory electronic recording of interrogations and considers other possibilities for the reform of interrogation practices and the protection of vulnerable suspect populations.

police interviews, interrogations, false confessions

Abstract:
This article explores the intricacies and mechanics of police interrogations in light of the Miranda decision. Legal scholars have yet to resolve the question of why suspects usually waive their rights and provide incriminating admissions and confessions. This article argues that the answer to this question lies in the nature of contemporary interrogation strategies. By developing sophisticated interrogation strategies based on manipulation, deception, and persuasion, the American police have replaced coercive pre-Miranda interrogation practices with manipulative and deceptive tactics that resemble the structure and sequence of a classic confidence game. The article concludes that Miranda's enduring legacy has been to transform police power inside the interrogation room without undermining its effectiveness.

Criminal procedure, Miranda, law enforcement, interrogations, confessions

Abstract:
This article analyzes contemporary interrogation practices as one example of the changing character of formal control in policing. The article examines how police employ techniques of influence to generate compliance with their requests. The author argues that police power is exercised affirmatively to control behavior during interrogation. Rather than relying on force or the threat of punishment, police commonly use subtle and sophisticated psychological methods of influence (conditioning, persuasion, deception, neutralization, and normalization) to elicit inculpatory admissions.

Criminal procedure, criminal justice, law enforcement, interrogation techniques

Abstract:
Psychological police interrogation methods in America inevitably involve some level of pressure and persuasion to achieve their goal of eliciting confessions of guilt from custodial suspects. In this article, we surveyed potential jurors about their perceptions of a range of psychological interrogation techniques, the likelihood that such techniques would elicit a true confession from guilty suspects and the likelihood that such techniques could elicit a false confession from innocent suspects. Participants recognized that these interrogation techniques may be psychologically coercive and may elicit true confessions, but that psychologically coercive interrogation techniques are not likely to elicit false confessions. The findings from this survey study indicate that potential jurors believe that false confessions are both counter-intuitive and unlikely, even in response to psychologically coercive interrogation techniques that have been shown to lead to false confessions from the innocent. This study provides empirical support for the idea that expert witnesses may helpfully inform jurors about the social science research on psychologically coercive interrogation methods and how and why such interrogation techniques can lead to false confessions.

psychological police interrogation methods, law enforcement, false confessions, juries, expert testimony

Abstract:
In 1998 Richard A. Leo and Richard J. Ofshe published a study of false confession cases entitled, The Consequences of False Confessions: Deprivations of Liberty and Miscarriages of Justice in the Age of Psychological Interrogation, which drew a response from Paul Cassell (1999), The Guilty and the Innocent: An Examination of Alleged Cases of Wrongful Conviction from False Confessions.

In this article, the authors demonstrate that Cassells article misreports the research and analysis contained in Leo and Ofshes 1998 article, and that Cassells attempt to challenge Leo and Ofshes classifications of nine out of sixty false confessions is erroneous because Cassell excludes or presents an incomplete picture of important facts in his case summaries, selectively ignores enormous inconsistencies, implausibilities and/or contradictions in the prosecutions cases, and fails to acknowledge the existence of substantial exculpatory, if not dispositive, evidence. To illustrate the problems and biases in Cassells commentary, this article discusses at length one of Cassells challenges, the Barry Lee Fairchild case, in the main body of the article and in a detailed appendix analyzes the eight other cases (Joseph Giarratano, Paul Ingram, Richard Lapointe, Jessie Misskelley, Bradley Page, James Harry Reyos, Linda Stangel, and Martin Tankleff). Leo and Ofshe provide a point by point refutation of Cassells assertions in all nine cases, demonstrating that all nine individuals were, as originally classified, almost certainly innocent of the crimes to which they had confessed.

Criminal procedure, Paul Cassell, wrongful convictions, false confessions, interrogation techniques

Abstract:
Although there is a recognized awareness of the overwhelming financial and social costs of white-collar crime in America, few scholars have probed this sociolegal field. For over a decade, the Yale White-Collar Crime Project has strengthened this area of legal scholarship. This article undertakes an in-depth analysis of four studies that comprise a major part of the Yale White-Collar Crime Project. It summarizes and evaluates each book individually and weighs the effect of the project as a whole on the study of white-collar crime. The studies surveyed include:

1) Susan Shapiro, Wayward Capitalists: Target of the Securities and Exchange Commission. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1984.

2) Kenneth Mann, Defending White-Collar Crime: A Portrait of Attorneys at Work. 1985. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1985.

3) Stanton Wheeler, Kenneth Mann, & Austin Sarat, Sitting in Judgment: The Sentencing of White-Collar Criminals. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1988.

4) David Weisburd, Stanton Wheeler, Elin Waring, & Nancy Bode, Crimes of the Middle Classes: White Collar Offenders in the Federal Courts. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1991.

This article begins with an overview of the major contested areas in the white-collar crime field, highlighting how the various definitions of white-collar crime drive most of these four scholarly works. This review considers the gaps in each study, providing guidance to future researchers to enable a further understanding of white-collar crime.

Criminal law, White-Collar Crime, Yale White-Collar Crime Project, Sociological Theory, Susan Shapiro, Wayward Capitalists, Defending White-Collar Crime, Stanton Wheeler, Kenneth Mann, Austin Sarat, Sitting in Judgment, David Weisburd, Elin Waring, Nancy Bode, Crimes of the Middle Classes

Abstract:
Is the Miranda v. Arizona decision a significant influence on the American criminal justice system in the twenty-first century? This article assesses two generations of legal research on Miranda in order to evaluate Miranda's effect on police interrogations, confessions and convictions, and the American public at large. The conclusion is that Miranda marginally limits interrogators from eliciting confessions, its influence on the criminal institution is overstated, and the decision provides few benefits to criminal suspects.

The article also suggests that legal scholars devote more energy to the empirical study of police interrogations and confessions. Finally, this article argues for mandating video or audio recording of police interrogations in order to promote interrogation reform. Such electronic recordings would create an objective, comprehensive, and reviewable record of the interrogation for all parties. Additionally, recording interrogations would furnish scholars with valuable empirical data.

criminal procedure, Miranda, interrogations, law enforcement, confessions, taping, recording, interrogation reform

Abstract:
The second of a two-part series, this article analyzes the long-term impact of the Court's ruling in Miranda v. Arizona on the behavior, attitudes, and culture of American police interrogators. The study is based on nine months of observation in an urban police department involving 122 interrogations and 45 detectives. It also relies on 60 videotaped custodial interrogations from two additional police departments. The article reviews the history and evolution of judicial attempts to regulate police interrogation methods through the constitutional law of criminal procedure. The author evaluates the desirability of Miranda as public policy and argues for the adoption of a constitutional rule that requires videotaping of custodial interrogations in all felony cases. Recording interrogations will provide greater credibility and legitimacy to police work, improve the quality of interrogation practices, and preserve the details of the interrogation for future review.

Criminal procedure, Miranda, law enforcement, interrogation techniques, empirical legal research

Abstract:
From its inception, the Miranda doctrine has been criticized by those who believe it unduly restricts law enforcement and by those who believe it provides insufficient protection for individuals suspected of a crime. Without opining whether the Miranda warning and waiver requirements should be overruled or modified, this article evaluates how police interrogators have adapted to Miranda. Drawing from interrogation transcripts that span over a decade, the article analyzes the dynamics of police officers' interrogation techniques in light of Miranda obstacles and evaluates the costs of Miranda to law enforcement.

The article acknowledges that the magnitude of Miranda's impact on law enforcement cannot be precisely determined. Rather than engage in any speculative evaluation of Miranda's effects on confession and conviction rates, the article instead focuses on the interaction between interrogators and suspects in a wide range of situations. The article concludes that modern police interrogators have refined their interrogation techniques to obtain admissible statements in spite of the obstacles posed by Miranda.

criminal procedure, Miranda, law enforcement, interrogation techniques

Abstract:
Miranda v. Arizona required that police inform suspects, prior to custodial interrogation, of their constitutional rights to silence and appointed counsel. It also required that suspects voluntarily, knowingly, and intelligently waive these rights in order for any resulting confession to be admitted into evidence at trial. The rationale of Miranda as elaborated by the Supreme Court has evolved from encouraging suspects to resist police interrogation to informing suspects that they have a right to resist. Reflecting a fundamental tenet in American culture and law, Miranda today seeks to protect the free choice of a suspect to decide whether to answer police questions during interrogation. Two generations of empirical scholarship on Miranda suggest that the Miranda requirements have exerted a negligible effect on the ability of the police to elicit confessions and on the ability of prosecutors to win convictions. There is no good evidence that Miranda has substantially depressed confession rates or imposed significant costs on the American criminal justice system. The practical benefits of Miranda to custodial suspects may also be negligible. Police have developed multiple strategies to avoid, circumvent, nullify, or simply violate Miranda and its invocation rules.

Criminal procedure, Miranda v. Arizona, criminal justice, interrogation techniques

Abstract:
This article addresses the issue of false confessions through its directed response to Paul Cassell's Balanced Approaches to the False Confession Problem: A Brief Comment on Ofshe, Leo and Alschuler. In an earlier article, The Decision to Confess Falsely: Rational Choice and Irrational Action, the authors developed a decision model that analyzed and explained how modern methods of psychologically-based interrogation lead both to true confessions from the guilty and false confessions from the innocent. The central point of this earlier article was that false confessions will occur when commonplace interrogation methods are used improperly. In this response to Cassell, the authors declare that Cassell's critique of their article mistakenly focuses on their contention that false confessions are numerous. The goal of their earlier article was to describe how interrogations are conducted in America, explain why they sometimes produce false confessions, and propose the use of mandatory recording of interrogations as a step towards minimizing false confessions. Cassell's response ignored these central points and instead criticized the authors' assertions about the frequency of false confessions and their policy recommendations.

Criminal procedure, false confessions, interrogations, taping, recording, law enforcement, Paul Cassell

Abstract:
This article critically analyzes the scholarship on miscarriages of justice to date and makes specific methodological and theoretical suggestions about how criminologists and other social scientists might develop the study of wrongful conviction into a more sophisticated and generalizable body of social scientific knowledge. The article describes and critiques the historical development of miscarriages scholarship and suggests specific strategies for developing a more empirically diverse, methodologically sophisticated, and theoretically oriented criminology of wrongful conviction.

criminal procedure, miscarriage of justice, law enforcement, wrongful conviction, criminology, empirical legal research

Abstract:
This article reviews four books that question the premises, logic, techniques, evidentiary grounding, and effects of recovered memory therapy:

1) Lawrence Wright, Remembering Satan: A Case of Recovered Memory and the Shattering of an American Family (1994).

2) Richard Ofshe and Ethan Watters, Making Monsters: False Memories, Psychotherapy, and Sexual Hysteria (1994).

3) Elizabeth Loftus and Katherine Ketcham, The Myth of Repressed Memory: False Memories and Allegations of Sexual Abuse (1994).

4) Mark Pendergrast, Victims of Memory: Incest Accusations and Shattered Lives (1995).

The article concludes that no scientific evidence supports the theory that the mind is capable of repressing such traumatic events. The article also analyzes the ways in which the recovered memory controversy has been socially and legally constructed and suggests how sociolegal scholars might further understanding of this phenomenon more generally. Finally, the article asserts that recovered memory therapy leads to prosecutions of innocent individuals and diverts scarce resources away from real social and political problems.

Scientific evidence, repressed memory, recovered memory, false memory, child abuse, Lawrence Wright, Richard Ofshe, Ethan Watters, Elizabeth Loftus, Katherine Ketcham, Mark Pendergrast

Abstract:
The essay argues that the police scholars in the 1980s and 1990s have not done as much theoretically-driven empirical research as previously because they have been primarily concerned with the needs of more specialized policy audiences. As police scholars internalize the interests and agendas of police leaders and policymakers, they become advocates of police reform agendas, and the quality of police scholarship becomes impoverished. The essay reviews David Bayley's Police for the Future (Oxford Univ. Press, 1994), which is a good example of the pull of the policy audience in police scholarship. The goal of Police for the Future is to provide police leaders and policy makers with information that will assist them to restructure police organizations so as to more effectively and efficiently prevent and control crime. Because he is writing for police leaders, politicians, and executive policymakers, Bayley's academic agenda is atheoretical, and it does not seek to deepen or broaden our understanding of police institutions and behavior. This essay also reviews Paul Chevigny, Edge of the Knife: Police Violence in the Americas (New Press, 1995). Because Edge of the Knife was not written for police chiefs, executive funding agencies, police foundation, legislators, or other policymakers, it retains a critical distance from their interests, frames, and agendas. Unlike much police scholarship in the past two decades, Chevigny successfully resists the intellectually deadening pull of the policy audience. Edge of the Knife is a work whose theoretical, methodological, and critical aspirations other police scholars would do well to emulate in the future.

Criminal justice, police scholarship, empirical research, David Bayley, Paul Chevigny

Abstract:
This article responds to Paul Cassell's article, Protecting the Innocent from False Confessions and Lost Confessions - And From Miranda. In this article, Cassell suggests an alternative methodology for estimating the annual frequency of wrongful convictions arising from false confessions. The authors argue that Cassell's proposed methodology rests on empirically untenable assumptions and ignores barriers to estimating the harm of improper interrogation methods. Cassell also claims that Miranda requirements present serious risks for innocent suspects. The authors assert that this claim has no empirical foundation.

Miranda, Paul Cassell, false confessions, wrongful convictions