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Abstract:
We explore an alternative approach to spam based on economic rather than technological or regulatory screening mechanisms. We employ a model of email value which supports two intuitive notions: 1) mechanisms designed to promote valuable communication can often outperform those designed merely to block wasteful communication, and 2) designers of such mechansisms should shift focus away from the information in the message to the information known to the sender. We then use principles of information asymmetry to cause people who knowingly misuse communication to incur higher costs than those who do not. In certain cases, though not all, we can show this approach leaves recipients better off than even an idealized or ``perfect'' filter that costs nothing and makes no mistakes. Our mechanism also accounts for individual differences in opportunity costs, and allows for bi-directional wealth transfers while facilitating both sender signaling and recipient screening.

Spam, email, information markets, mechanism design, signaling, screening, warranty, filtering, information asymmetry

Abstract:
In an effort to reveal the fine-grained relationships between IT use, patterns of information flows, and individual information-worker productivity, we study task level practices at a midsize executive recruiting firm. We analyze both project-level and individual-level performance using: (1) detailed accounting data on revenues, compensation, project completion rates, and team membership for over 1300 projects spanning 5 years, (2) direct observation of over 125,000 email messages over a period of 10 months by individual workers, and (3) data on a matched set of the same workers' self-reported IT skills, IT use and information sharing. These detailed data permit us to econometrically evaluate a multistage model of production and interaction activities at the firm, and to analyze the relationships among key technologies, work practices, and output. We find that (a) IT use is positively correlated with non-linear drivers of productivity; (b) the structure and size of workers' communication networks are highly correlated with performance; (c) an inverted-U shaped relationship exists between multitasking and productivity such that, beyond an optimum, more multitasking is associated with declining project completion rates and revenue generation; and (d) asynchronous information seeking such as email and database use promotes multitasking while synchronous information seeking over the phone shows a negative correlation. Overall, these data show statistically significant relationships among technology use, social networks, completed projects, and revenues for project-based information workers. Results are consistent with simple models of queuing and multitasking and these methods can be replicated in other settings, suggesting new frontiers for IT value and social network research.

Abstract:
We study the fine-grained relationships among information flows, IT use, and individual information worker productivity, by analyzing work at a midsize executive recruiting firm. We analyze both project-level and individual-level performance using: (1) direct observation of over 125,000 e-mail messages over a period of 10 months by individual workers (2) detailed accounting data on revenues, compensation, project completion rates, and team membership for over 1300 projects spanning 5 years, and (3) survey data on a matched set of the same workers' IT skills, IT use and information sharing. These detailed data permit us to econometrically evaluate a multistage model of production and interaction activities at the firm, and to analyze the relationships among communications flows, key technologies, work practices, and output. We find that (a) the structure and size of workers' communication networks are highly correlated with their performance; (b) IT use is strongly correlated with productivity but mainly by allowing multitasking rather than by speeding up work; (c) productivity is greatest for small amounts of multitasking but beyond an optimum, multitasking is associated with declining project completion rates and revenue generation; and (d) asynchronous information seeking such as email and database use promotes multitasking while synchronous information seeking over the phone shows a negative correlation. Overall, these data show statistically significant relationships among social networks, technology use, completed projects, and revenues for project-based information workers. Results are consistent with simple production models of queuing and multitasking and these methods can be replicated in other settings, suggesting new frontiers for bridging the research on social networks and IT value.

Productivity, Information Worker, Information Technology, Social Networks, Multitasking, Production Function

Abstract:
Competitive maneuvering in the information economy has raised a pressing question: how can firms raise profits by giving away products for free? This paper provides a possible answer and articulates a strategy space for information product design. Free strategic complements can raise a firm's own profits while free strategic substitutes can lower profits for competitors.

We introduce a formal model of two-sided market externalities based in textbook economics -- a mix of Katz & Shapiro network effects, price discrimination, and product differentiation -- that leads to novel strategies such as an eagerness to enter into Bertrand price competition. This combination helps to explain many recent firm strategies such as those of Microsoft, Netscape (AOL), Sun, Adobe, and ID.

The model presented here argues for three simple and intuitive results. First, a firm can rationally invest in a product it intends to give away into perpetuity even in the absence of competition. Second, we identify distinct markets for content-providers and end-consumers and show that either can be a candidate for the free good. Third, a firm can use strategic product design to penetrate a market that becomes competitive post-entry. The model therefore helps to explain several interesting market behaviors such as free goods, upgrade paths, split versioning, and strategic information substitutes.

free information, complements, substitutes, network effects, network externality, pricing, bundling, two-sided markets, two sided networks

Abstract:
The authors propose that a tradeoff between network diversity and communication channel band-width regulates the degree to which structurally diverse networks deliver non-redundant informa-tion to actors in brokerage positions. As the structural diversity of a network increases, the band-width of the communication channels in that network decrease, creating countervailing effects on the receipt of novel information. This argument is based on the observation that diverse networks are typically made up of weaker ties, characterized by narrower communication channels across which less diverse information is likely to flow. The diversity-bandwidth tradeoff is moderated by (a) the degree to which topics are uniformly or heterogeneously distributed over the alters in a broker’s network, (b) the dimensionality of the information in a broker’s network (whether the to-tal number of topics communicated by alters is large or small) and (c) the rate at which the infor-mation possessed by a broker’s contacts refreshes or changes over time. The authors test these ar-guments by combining social network and performance data with direct observation of the infor-mation content flowing through email communication at a medium sized executive recruiting firm. These analyses unpack the mechanisms that enable information advantages in networks and serve as a ‘proof-of-concept’ for using email content data to analyze relationships among infor-mation flows, networks and social capital.

Social Networks, Social Capital, Information Content, Information Diversity, Network Size, Network Diversity, EMail Networks, Performance, Productivity, Information Work.

Abstract:
Information technology can link geographically separated people and help them locate interesting or useful resources. These attributes have the potential to bridge gaps and unite communities. Paradoxically, they also have the potential to fragment interaction and divide groups. Advances in technology can make it easier for people to spend more time on special interests and to screen out unwanted contact. Geographic boundaries can thus be supplanted by boundaries on other dimensions. This paper formally defines a precise set of measures of information integration and develops a model of individual knowledge profiles and community affiliation. These factors suggest specific conditions under which improved access, search, and screening can either integrate or fragment interaction on various dimensions. As IT capabilities continue to improve, preferences - not geography or technology - become the key determinants of community boundaries.

Globalization, Information Economy, Information Flows, Computerization of Society, Organizational Structure, Economic Impacts, Balkanization, Social Networks

Abstract:
We consider openness in private and socially optimal licenses under conditions where network effects and multiperiod innovation are both possible. For private firms, we model a variety of possible business models from completely closed to fully open, and find that opening a platform can increase profits based on network effects exclusively, innovation exclusively, or both. A firm's ability to control downstream innovation gives it reaon to rationally behave more like a social planner and even tolerate limited levels of piracy, interpreted as free user access. Further, open contracts with modest royalties offered to all developers can dominate closed Nash bargaining subcontracts with lead developers. We also find conditions when firms choose proprietary licenses despite innovation and network effects.

In social planning terms, we find that optimal protection for reusable information is not arbitrarily long. Overlong protection interferes the inputs to downstream innovation. Further, licenses must enforce shorter-than-privately-optimal disclosure terms. Otherwise, a prisoner's dilemma in private incentives limits free access to derivative work, essential for decentralized innovation. In modeling terms, we add to the recent literature on two-sided network effects by incorporating a production function on one side of the market. We also contribute a framing innovation that places several existing license types in a space suggesting that socially optimal but unexplored licenses might exist.

Innovation, Free Software, Open Source, Lead Users, Two-Sided Markets, Platform Goods, Copyright Length, CopyFlex, Network Effects, Network Externalities, Intellectual Property Rights

Abstract:
We examine what drives the diffusion of different types of information through email networks and the effects of these diffusion patterns on the productivity and performance of information workers. In particular, we ask: What predicts the likelihood of an individual becoming aware of a strategic piece of information, or becoming aware of it sooner? Do different types of information exhibit different diffusion patterns, and do different characteristics of social structure, relationships and individuals in turn affect access to different kinds of information? Does better access to information predict an individual's ability to complete projects or generate revenue? We characterize the social network of a medium sized executive recruiting firm using accounting data on project co-work relationships and ten months of email traffic. We identify two distinct types of information diffusing over this network - 'event news' and 'discussion topics' - by their usage characteristics, and observe several thousand diffusion processes of each type of information. We find the diffusion of news, characterized by a spike in communication and rapid, pervasive diffusion through the organization, is influenced by demographic and network factors but not by functional relationships (e.g. prior co-work, authority) or the strength of ties. In contrast, diffusion of discussion topics, which exhibit shallow diffusion characterized by 'back-and-forth' conversation, is heavily influenced by functional relationships and the strength of ties, as well as demographic and network factors. Discussion topics are more likely to diffuse vertically up and down the organizational hierarchy, across relationships with a prior working history, and across stronger ties, while news is more likely to diffuse laterally as well as vertically, and without regard to the strength or function of relationships. We also find access to information strongly predicts project completion and revenue generation. The effects are economically significant, with each additional 'word seen' correlated with about $70 of additional revenue generated. Our findings provide some of the first evidence of the economic significance of information diffusion in email networks.

Networks, Information Diffusion, Productivity, Email

Abstract:
This research examines hypotheses about the efficient and strategic uses of social networks by a specific group of white collar workers. We examine existing theory that relates network structure to performance and put forward two new hypotheses. The first addition merges explore/exploit theory with social networks, proposing that optimal network characteristics evolve over the course of a career from those favoring exploration to those favoring exploitation of knowledge and relationships. The second concerns efficient movement of information through a network, proposing that frequent short communication outperforms infrequent lengthy communication. Using a unique data set containing email patterns and accounting records for several dozen executive recruiters, we find statistically significant differences related to network (1) structure (2) flow and (3) age. Consistent with existing theory, more central position is associated with higher output. Consistent with the two proposed theories, exploration strategies among early career recruiters and exploitation strategies among senior recruiters are both positively associated with performance, while more frequent shorter messages are associated with higher output. Results of this research have the potential to create a more complete understanding of different types of efficiency associated with social networks.

social networks, email, productivity

Abstract:
After offering a brief historical overview, this article presents a broad set of hypotheses in an effort to connect information to productivity. There are three contributions from this work. First, it distills observations from a diverse literature as prelude to exploring these theories empirically. Second, it applies two concrete models of information value, relating them to the economic definition of productivity, while considering how network structure influences information flow. Third, examples from an ongoing empirical study illustrate each hypothesis to give it practical significance. Interested readers may also test precise interpretations of these theories in an online simulation environment of networked societies.

information technology, productivity, information economics, social networks, search

Abstract:
How can firms profitably give away free products? This paper provides a novel answer and articulates tradeoffs in a space of information product design. We introduce a formal model of two-sided network externalities based in textbook economics - a mix of Katz & Shapiro network effects, price discrimination, and product differentiation. Externality-based complements, however, exploit a different mechanism than either tying or lock-in even as they help to explain many recent strategies such as those of firms selling operating systems, Internet browsers, games, music, and video.

The model presented here argues for three simple but useful results. First, even in the absence of competition, a firm can rationally invest in a product it intends to give away into perpetuity. Second, we identify distinct markets for content providers and end consumers and show that either can be a candidate for a free good. Third, product coupling across markets can increase consumer welfare even as it increases firm profits.

The model also generates testable hypotheses on the size and direction of network effects while offering insights to regulators seeking to apply antitrust law to network markets.

Two Sided Markets, Network Externalities, Network Effects, Antitrust, Information Pricing, Cross-Subsidy

Abstract:
Due to network effects and switching costs, platform providers often become entrenched. To dislodge them, entrants generally must offer revolutionary products. We explore a second path to platform leadership change that does not rely on Schumpeterian creative destruction: platform envelopment. By leveraging common components and shared user relationships, one platform provider can move into another's market, combining its own functionality with the target's in a multi-platform bundle. Dominant firms otherwise sheltered from entry by standalone rivals may be vulnerable to an adjacent platform provider's envelopment attack. We analyze conditions under which envelopment strategies are likely to succeed.

Platforms, network effects, bundling, two-sided markets, convergence

Abstract:
In platform markets, with applications ecosystems and sequential innovation, we examine the decisions to open the platform and to bundle downstream products. We find that competition among application developers reduces openness and innovation while competition among platforms has the opposite effect. Developers can also be better off producing for proprietary platforms as opposed to completely open standards. Although a social planner would open a platform sooner and to a greater degree than would a private platform sponsor, a platform sponsor's ability to control downstream innovation gives it reason to behave more like a social planner than it otherwise would. However, if platforms are to perform this role, platform sponsors need longer duration rights than application developers. Results can inform antitrust and intellectual property regulation, innovation and competition policy, and intellectual property strategy.

Sequential Innovation, Platforms, Copyright and Patent Length, Technological Uncertainty, Information Systems, Network Effects, Network Externalities

Abstract:
Platform-mediated networks encompass several distinct types of participants, including end users, complementors, platform providers who facilitate users' access to complements, and sponsors who develop platform technologies. Each of these roles can be opened - that is, structured to encourage participation - or closed. This paper reviews factors that motivate decisions to open or close mature platforms. At the platform provider and sponsor levels, these decisions entail: 1) interoperating with established rival platforms; 2) licensing additional platform providers; or 3) broadening sponsorship. With respect to end users and complementors, decisions to open or close a mature platform involve: 1) backward compatibility with prior platform generations; 2) securing exclusive rights to certain complements; or 3) absorbing complements into the core platform. Over time, forces tend to push both proprietary and shared platforms toward hybrid governance models characterized by centralized control over platform technology (i.e., closed sponsorship) and shared responsibility for serving users (i.e., an open provider role).

platforms, network effects, open innovation, standards, two-sided networks

Abstract:
This paper addresses the tension between benefits of centralized data control against the benefits of decentralized control at the level of the business unit. Centralized data control provides the benefit of uniform standards whereas business unit data control grants flexibility to react to rapidly changing environments. Many data standardization efforts fail because they do not fully take into account the value of flexibility and ownership incentives. We use a real options based framework and the theory of incomplete contracts to derive propositions about the optimal level of data standardization across the enterprise. Applications of the propositions are illustrated with case vignettes. The paper makes two main contributions. First, the approach defines formally how incentive structures influence ownership of the option value or value of flexibility, which is an intangible information asset. Second the derived propositions would help senior management to more precisely consider aligning incentives in data standardization exercises.

economics of IS, outsourcing, enterprise systems, real options, incomplete contracts, standardization, information asset, flexibility and information systems decentralization

Abstract:
A tension exists between two well-established streams of literature on the performance of teams. One stream contends that teams with diverse backgrounds, social structures, knowledge, and experience function more effectively because they bring novel information to bear on problems that cannot be solved by groups of homogeneous individuals. In contrast, the literature on mutual knowledge contends that shared information and experience is essential to effective communication, trust, understanding and coordination among team members. Furthermore, several distinct antecedents of mutual information and knowledge have been hypothesized, making it difficult to manage information overlap in teams. In this paper, we use a unique data set of observed email content from 1382 executive recruiting teams and detailed accounting data on their productivity to examine both the antecedents and performance effects of shared versus diverse information. We find clear evidence of an inverted-U shaped relationship between mutual information and team productivity. A significant amount of information overlap among team members is associated with higher performance while extremes of too little or too much mutual information hamper performance. We also find that geographic dispersion and social network distance are strong predictors of mutual knowledge failures, while demographic dissimilarity and organizational distance do not predict the degree of mutual information in our data. Our work helps bring together the divergent streams of literature on mutual knowledge, information diversity, and the management of team performance.

Mutual Knowledge, Diversity, Social Networks, Demography, Geographic Dispersion, Information Distance, Teams, Performance

Abstract:
Property rights provide incentives to create information but they also provide incentives to hoard it prior to the award of protection. All-or-nothing rights, in particular, limit prior sharing. An unintended consequence is to slow, not hasten, forward progress when innovation hinges on combining disparately owned private ideas. In response, we propose a solution, based on a reward denition of "fairness," that unblocks innovation by increasing willingness to share private knowledge.

We present four arguments. First, we show that fairness can increase the rate of innovation. Welfare can improve both in the absolute sense of enabling new projects and in the relative sense of reordering the social sort order of which projects individuals prefer to undertake. Second, in contrast to models of "other regarding" preferences, we show how self-interest alone is suffcient to justify fairness. Third, we show how this problem is more acute for information than for tangible goods. Fourth, we argue that liability rather than property rules can be more conducive to innovation based on information reuse and recombination.

Intellectual Property, Innovation, Information Asymmetry, Fairness, Ethics, Incentives, Contracts, Mechanism Design

Abstract:
This article reviews the literature on network organizations and interprets explanations for its behaviors in terms of established analytical principles. Tools from computer science, economics, and sociology give three markedly different interpretations of its core attributes but they also settle on a handful of common themes. The proposed benefits are a clarification of what it means for an organization to be network structured, a few insights into its origins, and a suggestion of where the boundaries to some of its different forms might lie.

markets versus hierarchies, decentralization, decision locus, asset specificity, vertical integration, communication, coordination costs, governance, teams, collaboration

Abstract:
We employ a unique data set on white-collar workers that combines direct observations of individual use of information technology as well as objective information on individual performance. The main hypothesis we examine is whether heavier users of IT are more productive, and if heavier users of IT are indeed more productive, how does this increase in productivity manifest itself? Our results suggest that, controlling for other factors, the size of an individual's internal email network is more highly correlated with revenues generated by that individual than age, experience or education. Further, the number of unique electronic contacts is more significant than the number of messages, external network size, and all other measures of email communication including declared time spent on email. Additionally, even after accounting for the individual's number of unique contacts within the firm, the social network measure of "betweenness" is also highly correlated with revenues. We attribute the strength of these results to the fine grain detail of the data on this form of task-based white collar work.

information technology, productivity, social networks