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Abstract:
In recent years, negotiation scholars have studied the effects of culture on negotiation as well as the effects of personality. This paper combines these two streams of research, and asks the question: Are the effects of personality on negotiation the same in a high-context, collectivist as they are in a low-context, individualistic culture? We develop predictions about differential effects of agreeableness and extraversion on negotiation in American and Chinese cultural contexts, and test them with data collected in Taiwan and the U.S. We also test whether western personality constructs (the Big Five) are useful in a Chinese context, compared to indigenously developed Chinese personality constructs. Our findings indicate that Chinese are more vulnerable to anchoring than Americans, that agreeableness and extraversion are not predictors of anchoring among Chinese (as they are among Americans), and that the Chinese personality constructs of Ren Qing, Face, and Harmony do affect negotiations in ways that can not be seen when just using the Big Five.

Personality, cross-cultural comparison, negotiation

Abstract:
Much has been written about the effects of electronic communication but few researchers have explored how the structural properties of e-mail impact the process of conflict management. In this paper, we examine whether the structural features of e-mail make it more likely that disputes will escalate when people communicate electronically compared to when they communicate face-to-face or via the telephone. Building upon Rubin, Pruitt, and Kim's (1994) conflict escalation model, we propose new conceptual framework that articulates: (1) the structural properties of e-mail communication, (2) the impact of these properties on conflict process effects, and (3) how process effects, in turn, set into motion the components of conflict escalation. Propositions identify the nature of relationships among process effects and conflict escalation. Our conceptual framework is designed to be the basis for future empirical research as well as a prescriptive guide regarding how one can avoid conflict escalation when communicating via e-mail.

conflict, e-mail, escalation, CMC, computers

Abstract:
Negotiation researchers theorize that individual differences are determinants of bargaining processes and outcomes but have yet to establish empirically the role of individual differences. In 2 studies the authors used bargaining simulations to examine the roles of personality and cognitive ability in distributive (Study 1) and integrative (Study 2) negotiation. The authors hypothesized and found evidence that Extraversion and Agreeableness are liabilities in distributive bargaining encounters. For both Extraversion and Agreeableness there were interactions between personality and negotiator aspirations such that personality effects were more pronounced in the absence of high aspirations. Contrary to predictions, Conscientiousness was generally unrelated to bargaining success. Cognitive ability played no role in distributive bargaining but was markedly related to the attainment of joint outcomes in a situation with integrative potential.

negotiation,personality,cognitive ability,distributive,integrative

Abstract:
This paper develops five alternative models for Chinese-American differences in conflict avoiding tendencies, and test them using a scenario study with respondents from Taiwan and the U.S. Our results show that, contrary to expectations, differences in the expected career costs/benefits of good/bad relations with others does not explain Chinese-American differences in conflict avoiding, nor do differences in attributional styles. The most important explanation for differences in avoiding is strong social norms that favor avoiding among Chinese. In addition, Chinese prefer avoiding more than Americans due to their expectation that direct expressions of conflict would damage the relationship and the greater value they place in having good relationships, as well as due to lower confidence in their own conflict management skills. The Chinese preference for avoiding, then, is not a matter of rational utility maximizing, but rather is an expression of deeply-held values and norms.

Culture, conflict avoiding, Chinese, rationality

Abstract:
In this paper, we proffer new theoretical ideas regarding how the structural features of e-mail make it more likely that disputes escalate when people communicate electronically compared to when they communicate face-to-face or via the telephone. Building upon Rubin, Pruitt, and Kim's (1994) conflict escalation model, we propose a new conceptual framework that articulates: (1) the structural properties of e-mail communication, (2) the impact of these properties on conflict process effects, and (3) how process effects, in turn, trigger conflict escalation. Propositions specify the nature of relationships among process effects and the components of conflict escalation. We also discuss how the extent of familiarity between individuals acts as a moderator of these relationships. Our conceptual framework, the dispute exacerbating model of e-mail (DEME), is designed to be a foundation for future empirical research.

Conflict, e-mail, escalation, disputes, cmc

Abstract:
In this paper, we proffer new theoretical ideas regarding how the structural features of e-mail make it more likely that disputes escalate when people communicate electronically compared to when they communicate face-to-face or via the telephone. Building upon Rubin, Pruitt, and Kim's (1994) conflict escalation model, we propose a new conceptual framework that articulates: (1) the structural properties of e-mail communication, (2) the impact of these properties on conflict process effects, and (3) how process effects, in turn, trigger conflict escalation. Propositions specify the nature of relationships among process effects and the components of conflict escalation. We also discuss how the extent of familiarity between individuals acts as a moderator of these relationships. Our conceptual framework, the dispute exacerbating model of e-mail (DEME), is designed to be a foundation for future empirical research.

Conflict, e-mail, escalation

Abstract:
This study investigates the impact of conflict style as a coping strategy in response to role conflict, Recent research has begun to examine workplace uncertainty as a mediator in the role stress process. Using this overall framework, we developed and tested hypotheses regarding the effect of conflict style activeness on the link between role conflict and uncertainty. Results supported the mediating role of uncertainty in the role stress process, thus replicating previous research. Additionally, the results showed exhibiting a more active approach to conflict management decreased the negative impact of role conflict an uncertainty. These findings suggest that individuals may be able to reduce the negative individual impact of role conflict in their environment by adopting positive behavioral styles while avoiding negative ones.

stress, role, conflict, uncertainty, personality

Abstract:
Reputation is defined as 'socially constructed labels that extend the consequences of a party's actions across time, situations, and other actions' (Tinsley, O'Conner, & Sullivan, 2002). Drawing on schema theory (Fiske & Taylor, 1991), Tinsley and colleagues argue that 'reputations evoke schemas that organize a negotiator's images of the counterpart.' Previous work on reputation has explored the effects of negotiator reputation on outcome (Friedman, Anderson, Brett, Olekalns, Goates, & Lisco, 2003; Tinsley, et al., 2002). The purpose of the paper abstracted here is to explore how negotiators develop reputation schemas relevant to the context of a negotiation and how reputations change as a result of having negotiated. We present the findings of two studies that address negotiator reputation. In the first study we report qualitative data regarding the kind of information that individual negotiators view as relevant in forming a reputation schema. In the second study we examine how the act of negotiating influence's an individual's construction of his or her opponent's reputation. Preliminary findings indicate that negotiator gender, satisfaction with process and outcome, and whether an agreement was reached effect post-negotiation ratings of skill and ethical reputation.

reputation, schema, gender

Abstract:
Scholars have argued that anger expressed by participants in mediation is counterproductive; yet, there is also reason to believe that expressions of anger can be productive. The authors tested these competing theories of emotion by using data from online mediation. Results show that expression of anger lowers the resolution rate in mediation and that this effect occurs in part because expressing anger generates an angry response by the other party. However, when respondents are especially vulnerable, expressions of anger by the filer do not hinder settlement. The authors also examined precursors to anger, such as value of dispute and reputation, and the degree to which a focus on dispute resolution is reciprocated.

anger,emotion,conflict,cmc,dispute resolution,mediation

Abstract:
Conflict styles are typically seen as a response to particular situations. By contrast, we argue that individual conflict styles may shape an employee's social environment, affecting the level of ongoing conflict and thus his or her experience of stress. Using data from a hospital-affiliated clinical department, we find that those who use a more integrative style experience lower levels of task conflict, reducing relationship conflict, which reduces stress. Those who use a more dominating or avoiding style experience higher levels of task conflict, increasing relationship conflict and stress. We conclude that an employee's work environment is, in part, of his or her own making

stress, conflict, style

Abstract:
This study models the time it takes to resolve a dispute in an on-line setting. It uses Cox regression and 582 eBay-generated disputes to test hypotheses derived from the social functionalist theory of emotions (Morris & Keltner, 2000). The data show that the opening communications between filer and respondent frame the dispute for either rapid or delayed resolution. The results provide evidence for the social functionalist theoretical view as well as rather surprising insights with immediate applicability to disputants and the third party practitioners who wish to help them resolve their disputes by identifying what elements of opening moves accelerate or delay resolution.

dispute resolution, online, emotion, mediation, face

Abstract:
Companies in the United States are concerned with retaining minority employees to maintain or increase the diversity of their workforce. Here we assess the value of one approach companies have used to retain minority employees: "network" groups. Based on data obtained from a large company with extensive network groups, this study compares the turnover intentions of minority employees who have joined one of the company's network groups to those who have not joined one of the company's network groups. The data show that employee network groups can be useful in helping companies retain managerial-level minority employees. Extensive recommendations are provided to help organizations maximize the effectiveness of network groups.

turnover, race, Asian, black, Hispanic, networks

Abstract:
Most arbitration research has been conducted in United States, despite the growth of arbitration internationally. In this study, we examine differences between Chinese and Americans arbitrators. First, we examine general levels of leniency versus punishment when arbitrators make awards. We predict, and find, that Chinese arbitrators punish bad performance more heavily than do American arbitrators. Second, we examine the effects of attributions on awards. Prior theory suggests that Chinese tend to have more external attributions for events, which should make Chinese arbitrators more lenient than American arbitrators. We find the opposite - that Chinese arbitrators have more internal attributions for poor performance than do Americans. Moreover, where evidence is mixed (evidence is provided for both internal and external attributions), American arbitrators pay more attention to external causes, while Chinese arbitrators pay more attention to internal causes.

Arbitration, attribution, cross-cultural,Chinese,cognition

Abstract:
Ethnographic research offers an alternative approach which can provide insights into the types of complex sitnations that negotiators really face. This approach is not easy - it can be more time consuming, costly, and difficult than other research methods - but the payoff comes from the way these in-depth studies challenge scholars to develop new ideas and theories, based on what really happens in negotiations rather than on the logical next step in a series of experiments.

methods, negotiation, mediation, ethnography, field work, social context, qualitative method

Abstract:
This paper develops an expectancy model for Chinese-American differences in conflict-avoiding, and tests this model using a scenario study with respondents from Taiwan and the US. Our results show that a higher Chinese tendency to avoid conflict is explained by higher Chinese expectations that direct conflict will hurt the relationship with the other party, and by greater concern for the other party among Chinese. It is not, however, explained by differences in the expected career costs/benefits of good/bad relations with others. Also, Chinese are more sensitive to hierarchy than Americans, so that avoiding is heightened more for Chinese than for Americans when the other party is of higher status. Qualitative results suggest that Chinese-American differences in time frames may also explain differences in avoiding. Implications for businesses and management are suggested.

culture, conflict, avoiding, Chinese, guanxi

Abstract:
Most arbitration research has been conducted in United States, despite the growth of arbitration internationally. In this study, we plan to examine one area where cross-cultural differences between Chinese and Americans have been found - attribution - and explore what effects this might have on arbitrator decisions. Cross-cultural attribution literature indicates Americans tend to make more dispositional attributions, while Chinese tend to make more situational or contextual attributions, and that Americans tend to attribute results to a person's ability while Chinese tend to attribute results to a person's effort. We propose that these attribution differences influence arbitrator decisions and will conduct a cross-cultural field experiment to test our hypotheses.

Arbitration, Attribution, Cross-culture

Abstract:
In this paper we test the hypothesis that boundary spanning is a differentiated function that is not necessarily performed by one person, as assumed in much previous research. Using longitudinal network data collected during labor negotiations, we found that some individuals on the bargaining teams (representatives) broker ties toward their opponents, while others (gatekeepers) broker ties from their opponents; and some broker task-oriented ties (measured by flows of advice), while others broker socioemotional ties (measured by flows of trust). Differentiation of trust and advice brokerage roles was strong throughout the negotiations, while differentiation of representative and gatekeeper roles became more distinct as the contract deadline (and increased potential for role conflict) neared. This analytic distinction suggests that role conflict must be examined differently, both conceptually and methodologically, and widens the range of options available for managing potential role confllcts.

labor,negotiation,role,conflict,boundary spanning,groups

Abstract:
Recent research suggests that employees are highly affected by perceptions of their managers' pattern of word-action consistency, which Simons (2002) called "behavioral integrity" (BI). We suggest that some employee racial groups may be more attentive to BI than others. We test this notion using data from 1,944 employees working at 107 different hotels. We found that black employees rated their managers as demonstrating lower BI than did non-black employees. Mediation analyses are consistent with the notion that these differences in perceived BI, in turn, account for cross-race differences in trust in management, interpersonal justice, commitment, satisfaction, and intent to stay. Results of Hierarchical Linear Modeling were consistent with the idea that middle managers' perceptions of their senior managers' BI "trickle down" to affect line employee perceptions of the middle managers, and that this trickledown effect is stronger for black employees. We interpret these results as indicative of heightened sensitivity to managers' BI on the part of black employees. We also found a reverse in-group effect, in that black employees were substantially more critical of black managers than were non-black employees.

race,behavioral integrity,diversity,justice,black

Abstract:
We use politeness theory to predict how language may affect dispute resolution between sellers and buyers of goods purchased on-line. We expect that negative face threats will have a stronger impact than positive face threats on subjects in individualistic cultures, but that the reverse would be true for subjects in collectivist cultures. We report results of our first study, an experiment conducted through eLab focused on Americans. As predicted, negative face attacks by the seller have a stronger impact than positive face attacks on buyer's willingness to do business again with that seller. Data will also be collected from a collectivistic culture shortly.

Abstract:
Negotiation teams are widely used to negotiate on behalf of organizations, yet relatively little is known about how they overcome the challenges posed by within team dynamics to create a sound across-the-table team bargaining strategy. This paper presents a two phase analysis of accounts of negotiating team experiences collected from 45 executives. In the first phase we present a qualitative categorization of negotiating team challenges and management strategies. In the second phase we demonstrate that the match between challenges and management strategies and the quality of team process largely depends on how teams manage within team dynamics. Teams are more likely to be able to implement management strategies that match the challenges they face when teams also engage in substantive debates about negotiating team goals; teams are less likely to implement strategies that match team challenges when teams also engage in personality conflicts. Thus, substantive conflict helps rationalize team processes, while personality conflict undermines the development of appropriate team management strategies if not addressed appropriately.

Abstract:
While many scholars have discussed the role of agents in negotiation, the matter of principle (constituent) behavior in broker-mediated negotiations versus principle behavior in principle-to-principle negotiations has gone unstudied. We suggest that agents create a social distance between principles that inhibits cooperative behavior between principles. We therefore predict that principles who negotiate through agents will have higher outcome expectations, make less concessions, and offer fewer creative ideas for settlement than will principles who negotiate directly. We then describe an experiment intended to test our predictions, but cannot yet report results. (Results for this and related follow-up experiments will be available in time for the IACM 2005 annual meeting.)

Agent, constituent, negotiation

Abstract:
In this study, we examine differences between Chinese and American commercial arbitrators. We predict, and find, that Chinese arbitrators make higher awards for inter-firm contract violations than Americans. This difference is partially explained by differences in attributions. Prior theory suggests, and we find, that Chinese tend to have more internal attributions for events when observing group actions. When evidence provided to arbitrators is mixed (evidence is provided for both internal and external attributions), Chinese-American differences in awards become even stronger.

Arbitration, Attribution, Chinese, Culture, Cross-cultural, Ambiguity

Abstract:
Most cross-cultural research focuses on general differences or similarities between cultures, while little attention has been paid to when these differences emerge. A dynamic constructivist view of culture (Hong, Morris, Chiu, & Benet- Martínez, 2000; Morris & Fu, 2001) posits that culture impacts individuals’ behaviors through the activation of cultural knowledge in specific contexts. Using this approach, the present study examines how the interaction between cultural and situational factors affects business negotiation. Specifically, we predicted that only when they negotiate with ingroup members under high accountability conditions, would Chinese negotiators show greater relationship-oriented (vs. self-focused) tendencies than would American negotiators. A pilot negotiation simulation study with 108 Chinese students and a main study with 230 students from China and the United States provided support to our predictions. The implications of our studies to theory and practice are also discussed.

Abstract:
Behavioral integrity (BI) - a perception that a person acts in ways that are consistent with their words - has been shown to have an impact on many areas of work life, such as organizational commitment, turnover intentions, and trust in managers. While there is growing evidence that BI maters, there have been no studies of BI in Asian cultural contexts. Yet there is good reason to expect that words are interpreted differently in the East and the West. This study looks at response to word-deed inconsistency in the U.S. and India, using a scenario-based experiment. Results suggest that Indians do not respond as strongly to word-deed inconsistency as do Americans, and that US-Indian difference are especially pronounced when the speaker is a boss (rather than a subordinate) in the workplace.

Abstract:
As companies look for better ways to manage diversity, one of the approaches that is emerging is the use of female and minority network groups. These groups are not well understood, and there has been no quantitative analysis of their impact on minority employees. Social network theory suggests that network groups should enhance the social resources available to women and minorities and in that way enhance their chance of career success, but some critics of network groups suggest that backlash might produce greater social isolation and discrimination. In this paper, we analyze a survey of members of the National Black MBA Association to find out whether network groups have a positive impact on career optimism, what specific effects of these groups are most beneficial, and whether groups enhance isolation or discrimination. Results indicate that network groups have a positive overall impact on career optimism of Black managers, and that this occurs primarily via enhanced mentoring. Network groups have no effect on discrimination, either positive or negative. There are some indications of greater isolation, but also some indications of greater contact with Whites.

career, race, networks,diversity,black

Abstract:
This study investigated the link between private entrepreneurs’ political networking and organizational strategies for conflict management in China. We predicted, and found, that those with political influence were more likely to use a “rights” approach to resolve inter-organizational disputes (i.e., going to court), while those without political influence were more likely to use an “interests” approach (i.e., mediation and negotiation). There were no differences between those with and without political influence in use of “power” (i.e., going directly to government agencies). These findings are based on a survey of 4149 private Chinese entrepreneurs in 1995, 1997, and 2000.

Abstract:
In this paper, we examine the underlying dynamics of the differences between blacks' and whites' responses to social accounts-explanations or excuses for negative actions and events. Across four studies we found that when black respondents observed unjust behaviors toward a hypothetical black victim, social accounts had a weak impact on perceptions of injustice, confirming the presence of what we call the persistent injustice effect. We also found that social accounts have a weaker impact on perceptions of injustice than on disapproval of the harm-doer and posit that the persistent injustice effect results from a combination of in-group identification with the victim and the respondent's personal experiences with injustice. These two factors, we theorize, combine to create greater empathy for the victim.

race,black,justice,excuses,social accounts,empathy,diversity

Abstract:
In this study, we examine culture-specific relationships between individual differences and distributive negotiations. We measured individual characteristics and their effects on distributive negotiations in both American [1] and Chinese cultures, using a Western-based scale (the 'Big Five') and a Chinese-based scale (CPAI). We found that agreeableness and extraversion (from the 'Big Five') affected negotiations for Americans, but not for Chinese. We found that harmony, face and Ren Qing (from the Chinese-based scales) affected negotiations for Chinese, but not for Americans. Specifically, we found that in the American culture, those higher in extraversion and agreeableness achieved lower economic gain, whereas in the Chinese context that those high in harmony, face, and Ren Qing were more likely to be influenced by opening offers and achieve lower economic gain in distributive negotiations. Our study highlights the need to examine negotiations using culturally sensitive constructs and measures.

Abstract:
Do minority employees join network groups due to social identity, dissatisfaction with conditions at work, or career costs and benefits? Results show that joining is driven by social identity as well as expected costs (backlash) and benefits (career enhancement) but not by dissatisfaction, making it unlikely that they will become oppositional. Participation is also driven by cost-benefit calculations and social identity (via the effect social identity has on the perceived benefits of network groups).

Abstract:
We develop a three-dimensional concept of supervisor–subordinate guanxi. This concept includes affective attachment, personal-life inclusion, and deference to supervisor. Based on this concept, we conducted three studies to develop and validate a three-dimensional supervisor–subordinate guanxi measure and to examine its relationship with related constructs, such as leader–member exchange. Results from Study 1 and Study 2 provide evidence of convergent and discriminant validity of the scale, while Study 3 demonstrates the scale's incremental validity and replicates results from Study 2. Furthermore, in Study 3, we found that the three dimensions of supervisor–subordinate guanxi had different significant effects on commitment, turnover intention, and procedural justice, providing further evidence of criterion-related validity. Overall, these empirical results provide support for our three-dimensional model of supervisor–subordinate guanxi.

Abstract:
This study used a scenario design to examine whether there are different reactions among Whites based on how a diversity program is justified by an organization. A reactive justification (affirmative action) was proposed to result in greater backlash than a competitive advantage justification (diversity management). In addition, this study examined the effects of personal and group outcomes on backlash and explored two individual difference variables, gender and orientation toward other ethnic groups, as potential moderators of the proposed relationships. Backlash was operationalized in four ways: an affect-based measure (negative emotions), two cognitive-based measures (attitude toward the diversity program, perceptions of unfairness of promotion procedures), and a behavioral-intentions-based measure (organizational commitment). Results indicated that the diversity management justification was associated with more favorable support of the diversity initiative, and that unfavorable personal and group outcomes adversely affected backlash reactions. There was no empirical support for the influence of the moderator variables on the proposed relationships, however, a main effect for gender was found. Implications of the study's findings and future research directions are discussed.

diversity,race, justice, affirmative action