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Abstract:
Although organizations on the same side in a negotiation often work together there is little understanding about such dynamics at the operations level. The present paper uses the "inter-organizational negotiation team" and structural theory to frame this intellectual problem, while identifying five structural factors that support inter-organizational negotiation team dynamics (i) inter-organizational relations, (ii) relations between organizational leaders, (iii) supervisory-subordinate relations and/or agent-constituent relations, (iv) inter-organizational negotiation team member relations and group dynamics, and (v) inter-organizational negotiation team relations with their environment. This typology of structural factors is then applied to a complex inter-organizational case study that contains commercial, governmental, political and international characteristics. Case analysis of inter-organizational negotiation team behavior assists in identifying how these five factors effect negotiation process and outcome, while prescriptive guidance for negotiation management is offered. Analysis and discussion considers inter-organizational relationship formation and negotiation planning, inter-organizational relations and power, inter-organizational control, and inter-organizational unity and goal achievement. An inventory of factors that enhance or diminish inter-organizational negotiation team unity is developed through the present study. Research questions that further our understanding of inter-organizational negotiation team behavior are proposed.

Inter-organizational team dynamics, unity-disunity inventory of determinants

Abstract:
Although negotiation theory provides substantial understanding about negotiation process and outcome, it does not adequately consider the social context in which a negotiation is embedded. When the element of time is added to social context it appears as if a specific negotiation becomes surrounded by a flow-of-events. I argue that this flow-of-events, and hence context, may be more clearly understood through the application of linkage theory. This paper reviews the literature on linkage theory and proposes a three-part temporal model of negotiation linkage: simultaneous links, concurrent links and consecutive links. I apply this model and a rolebased framework (link-pin party and linked party) in examining case-study data from two discrete negotiations that are concurrently linked in time: Singapore - Australia free-trade negotiations (SAFTA: 11/2000 - 2/2003) and United States - Singapore free-trade negotiations (USSFTA: 11/2000 - 5/2003). Case analysis facilitates development of propositions and guidance that can assist in (1) determining the direction of influence in linked negotiations, (2) managing opportunistic behaviour in linked negotiations, (3) managing negotiation strategy and (4) gaining negotiation efficiency opportunity through linkage. Following an examination of the structural characteristics that appear to determine case-study linkage dynamics, this paper builds a four-part structural framework that identifies choices and consequences that parties confront in concurrently linked negotiations. The paper concludes by outlining a program of research based on a temporal model of negotiation linkage.

Managing negotiation linkage, social context, trade negotiations

Abstract:
Negotiation linkage (the way that one discrete negotiation influences the process or outcome of another discrete negotiation) presents challenges that are complex and real, although its management receives limited attention in the negotiation literature. This study examines four linked bilateral trade treaty negotiations conducted by Australia, Chile, the European Union, Singapore and the United States to develop understanding about negotiation linkage dynamics and its management. This study introduces the concept of "degree of linkage dynamics" (robust, moderate and modest) based on structural and contextual factors. This study also describes five specific techniques that parties can employ to produce tangible gains in linked negotiations. Data analysis develops a role-based typology that identifies strategic opportunities and challenges for each role, and establishes seven testable propositions.

Abstract:
Linkage theory (the way one negotiation influences or determines the process or outcome of another) can effectively explain the relationship between a negotiation and its relevant environment. This study examines how external events grounded in multilateral, regional or bilateral environments influence negotiation process and outcome. Linkages between four trade negotiations are investigated: the WTO Doha round (multilateral); EU-Mercosur (regional); EU-Chile (bilateral); and US-Chile (bilateral). This study is able to extend understanding about issue linkages and two-level games by developing a theoretical framework that defines the known universe of linkage dynamics. The controlling influence of multilateral negotiations on regional, but not bilateral, negotiations is of particular interest, as is the use of a bilateral-multilateral linkage strategy by nation-states in pursuing geopolitical ends.

Abstract:
The World Bank identifies two trends within the international trading system: multilateral negotiations sponsored by GATT/WTO based on evolving rules grounded in non-discrimination, and bilateral and regional negotiations between nations that reduce trade barriers on a reciprocal and preferential basis. This article asks how we might enhance the global trade policy development process through interaction and coordination between these two trade policy development systems. It seeks an understanding of the nature of bilateral trade negotiations so that we can compare bilateral and WTO-sponsored multilateral processes. In so doing, we can observe how these two systems naturally interact thus enabling us to consider how that interaction may be better designed to enhance the international trade policy development system. After examining current trends in bilateral and regional trade negotiations, this article considers the opportunities and challenges of a two-track system for developing trade policy by examining bilateral trade negotiations conducted by Australia, Singapore and the United States. The article concludes with observations that may assist in re-framing the current debate over bilateral and multilateral trade negotiations and includes recommendations for the effective management of a two-track trade policy development system.