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Abstract:
In this paper, we estimate a gravity equation properly accounting for omitted exporter and importer's overall trade resistance, through country yearly dummies for exporter and importer countries. We find that the omission of time varying multilateral trade resistance terms in the estimation of a gravity equation introduces important biases in the results, although correcting them means we can only compute differences between actual and predicted export shares, instead of levels, as usually done. An application to the calculation of trade potentials in the Euromed region (Southern and Eastern Mediterranean countries) shows that the omission of time varying multilateral trade resistance terms greatly influences the computation of export potentials as well as the estimated effect of signing a free trade agreement. Overall, we find that, except for Algeria, Jordan and Lebanon, Euromed countries' share of exports to the EU as a whole is at, or slightly above, those predicted by a correctly specified gravity model, although the share of exports to some individual EU countries is significantly below the predictions of the gravity model. Except for those three countries, we find significant opportunities for export growth to the US, instead.

gravity model, trade potentials, export shares, Euromed

Abstract:
It has been emphasized that international promotion activities such as state visits or the presence of embassies, consulates and export promotion agencies help foster trade when there are search costs and/or uncertainty. In this paper we try to disentangle the differential effect that foreign service (embassies and consulates) has on both the establishment of trade links with countries, and the effect on trade volumes with already existing trading partners (the extensive and intensive margins at the country level). Using the estimation procedure suggested by Helpman, Melitz and Rubinstein (2007) and a cross-section of 21 exporters and 162 importers as in Rose (2005), we find that the presence of a foreign service office in a given country increases the probability of trading with that partner between 11% and 18%, but that it has no effect on the volume of trade with already existing trading partners. We then proceed to evaluate the importance of the extensive margin at the sectoral level, finding that these probabilities are substantially larger for more differentiated sectors.

Foreign service, uncertainty, extensive margin, intensive margin, gravity

Abstract:
The continued rise in oil prices since 2002 has resulted in a significant increase in export revenue for oil exporting countries. This increase in the price of oil and other commodities means that OPEC countries and Russia have received, between 2003 and 2006, a windfall of 1.3 trillion dollars with respect to their export level in 2002. This paper analyzes, using the limited data available, the recycling of these resources back to the world economy through the trade channel, via higher imports, or the financial channel, via an increase in the net external asset position of these countries. Our results show that around 50% of the windfall revenue has been used to increase imports, while the rest has been directed towards international reserve accumulation and other improvements in the net asset position of these countries. Comparing the current oil price increase with previous ones, such as those resulting from the tightening of oil supply in the 70's, we find that the trade channel has been more important in the current episode than in previous ones. This can be attributed to (i) the perception of a more permanent increase in the price of oil in the context of rising demand, and (ii) the gradualism of the current oil price increase, which has allowed a stronger response from imports.

Petróleo, exportaciones, importaciones, reservas internacionales, activos netos exteriores, reciclaje comercial, reciclaje financiero

Abstract:
Building upon the general consensus that macroeconomic volatility reduces economic growth since Ramey and Ramey (1995), we empirically show - for over 100 countries during the period 1978-2002 - that a moderate degree of volatility can actually be growth-enhancing while very high volatility is clearly detrimental. These results point to the existence of a "Laffer curve" between volatility and growth. We also find evidence that the detrimental effect of high volatility can be mainly attributed to the occurrence of sovereign crises while banking crises reduce volatility for certain model specifications. In sum, the existence of a "Laffer curve" between volatility and growth can be attributed, at least in part, to the different nature of the crisis buffeting each country.

Volatility, Economic Growth, Sovereign Crises, Banking Crises, Currency Crises

Abstract:
International Macroeconomics has long sought an explanation for current account fluctuations that matches the data. The approaches have typically focused on better models and new macroeconomic variables. We demonstrate the limitations of this approach by showing that idiosyncratic shocks are an important cause of macroeconomic volatility even for large countries. When explaining these fluctuations, standard macroeconomic models generally assume that firms are small and that their microeconomic shocks cancel out. We show that the high degree of concentration of bilateral trade flows means that idiosyncratic shocks can have a significant impact on aggregate economic fluctuations. We theoretically develop a descomposition components. Taking the model to data on bilateral trade flows from 1970 to 1997, we find that the most comprehensive macroeconomic model can only account for at most half of the observed variance in trade account volumes of each country. Thus, this paper highlights the importance of considering disaggregated data when modeling the current account.

trade balance, trade concentration, firms, empirical

Abstract:
We face uncertainty in most economic decisions we take. This is particularly true in the case of a firm entering a foreign market where there is uncertainty about the size of the market, the distribution channels, the adequacy of the firm's product to local tastes, etc. Despite its obvious importance, this ingredient appears to have been largely overlooked by the literature explaining the direction and volume of international trade flows. We incorporate this informational uncertainty into a model with heterogeneous firms similar to the one proposed by Melitz (2003). The model exhibits informational externalities that arise via informational complementarities: in markets with less uncertainty, the most productive firms always find optimal to enter. Once a firm enters that foreign market, her success/failure reveals information to other domestic firms who, given the new information, optimally decide whether to enter. We characterize the conditions under which, given initial entry, informational externalities are strong enough to reach an equilibrium with full information. The model delivers an explanation for the recent dynamic evolution of trade flows, at the intensive margin at the country level and the extensive margin at the firm/product level. The model also provides insights on the persistence of bilateral trade flows, zero trade flows, and why we observe empirically less entrance by small firms than the Melitz model predicts.

firm heterogeneity, International Trade, Uncertainty, Informational Externalities

Abstract:
One of the most striking features of the world economy is that wealthy countries are clustered together. This paper theoretically and empirically explains a mechanism for this clustering by extending the Acemoglu and Ventura model so that it takes real geography into account. Countries close to fast growing economies experience faster growth in aggregate demand for their exports, stimulating faster domestic growth. As a result, a poor country that is surrounded by other poor countries finds it more difficult to grow because its terms of trade shift against it. When this model is estimated on data for 1965 to 1985, we find statistically and economically significant effects. If the typical European country were located in Africa, these terms of trade effects would have lowered its growth rate by almost 1 percentage point per year. The results strongly suggest that it is very difficult to raise income in poor countries without dealing with regional problems.

Economic growth, Economic geography, International trade, Terms of trade, Empirical

Abstract:
This paper analyses the levels of interdependence and risk that take place in the economic relations between Spain and a large number of countries. Bilateral data on commercial and financial links between Spain and the rest of the world are used in order to build, by means of a Principal Components Analysis, an interdependence index between Spain and each country. Moreover, the aggregation by means of the same technique of several measures of risk, such as sovereign credit ratings and more general ones, enables to construct a risk index for each country. By combining the information of both indices, it is found that the greatest exposures of the Spanish economy occur with countries which are associated to low levels of risk (mainly the OECD), whereas the highest exposures that are related to intermediate levels of risk happen with Latin American countries and exporters of energy products.

commercial integration, financial integration, energy dependence, risk