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Abstract:
Out of a total of 12,637 individuals whose works were ever cited in the leading finance journals over the past 25 years, the top 1% (10%) account for more than one third (three quarters) of the number of citations to articles published in these journals. In contrast, nearly one half of the authors have been cited only once. Similarly, the top 1% (10%) of articles/books received 22% (56%) of the total number of citations. These results indicate that a few prominent researchers dominate citation in these journals. The top two finance journals, the Journal of Finance and Journal of Financial Economics, account for more than half of the 100 most cited works.

Journal citations, scholarly output, journal rankings

Abstract:
Out of a total of 12,637 individuals who published at least one article in the leading finance journals over the past 25 years, the top 1% (10%) account for more than one third (three quarters) of the number of citations to articles published in these journals. In contrast, nearly one half of the authors have been cited only once. These results indicate that a few prominent researchers dominate citation in the top finance journals. We explain these empirical regularities using a stochastic model of citation.

citations, concentration, stochastic process

Abstract:
This paper examines the role of financial analysts as a marketing aid to brokerage firms. This study suggests that investors prefer to hold stocks of high-quality companies and that financial analysts help the marketing efforts of brokerage companies by focusing their analysis on such stocks. This paper uses S&P's common stock rankings as empirical proxies for firm quality and finds that stocks rated by S&P are followed by more analysts than those not rated. Furthermore, among those stocks rated by S&P, highly-rated stocks are followed by more analysts than poorly-rated stocks. This study also finds a significant increase (decrease) in analyst following when S&P upgrades (downgrades) quality rankings. Overall, empirical evidence supports the marketing hypothesis of analyst following.

Marketing, Financial analysts, Stock rankings, Cognitive error

Abstract:
This paper examines the role of financial analysts as a marketing aid to brokerage firms. This study suggests that investors prefer to hold stocks of high-quality companies and that financial analysts help the marketing efforts of brokerage companies by focusing their analysis on such stocks. This paper uses S&P's common stock rankings as empirical proxies for firm quality and finds that stocks rated by S&P are followed by more analysts than those not rated. Furthermore, among those stocks rated by S&P, highly-rated stocks are followed by more analysts than poorly-rated stocks. This study also finds a significant increase (decrease) in analyst following when S&P upgrades (downgrades) quality rankings. Overall, empirical evidence supports the marketing hypothesis of analyst following.

Marketing, Financial analysts, Stock rankings, Cognitive error

Abstract:
This paper develops a simple formula for approximating Tobin's q. The formula requires only basic financial and accounting information. Results of a series of regressions comparing our approximate q values with those obtained via Lindenberg and Ross' (1981) more theoretically correct model indicate that at least 96.6% of the variability of Tobin's q is explained by approximate q.

Tobin's q, Simple formula

Abstract:
This paper examines the empirical relation among trading volume, informational variables (i.e., precision and differential beliefs), the bid-ask spread components, and price volatility using a structural model that treats the spread components, trading volume, and price volatility as endogenous. Specifically, we investigate the direct and indirect effects of informational precision and differential beliefs on trading volume via a structural model representation in general and examine the theoretical ambiguity issue of George, Kaul, and Nimalendran (1994) in particular. Our empirical results indicate that although liquidity trading dampens the effect of informational precision on trading volume, the net effect of informational precision is positive. Also, while higher differential beliefs lead to greater trading by informed traders, it exerts a commensurate negative impact on liquidity trading. As a result, the net effect of differential beliefs on trading volume is insignificant. This new finding refutes the generally accepted belief in the volume literature that greater differences of opinion induce more trading.

Trading volume, Information precision, Differential belief, Bid-ask spreads, Structural model

Abstract:
In this study we show that both the price impact of trades and serial correlation in trade direction are positively and significantly related to the probability of information-based trading (PIN). The positive relation remains significant even after controlling for the effects of stock attributes. Higher trading activity (i.e., shorter intervals between trades) induces both larger price impact and stronger positive serial correlation in trade direction. The effect of time interval between trades on quote revision is stronger for stocks with higher PIN values. These results provide direct empirical support for the information models of trade and quote revision.

Quote revisions, asymmetric information, price impact, trade autocorrelation

Abstract:
We investigate the empirical relation between corporate governance and stock market liquidity. We find that firms with better corporate governance have narrower spreads, higher market quality index, smaller price impact of trades, and lower probability of information-based trading. In addition, we show that changes in our liquidity measures are significantly related to changes in the governance index over time. These results suggest that firms may alleviate information-based trading and improve stock market liquidity by adopting corporate governance standards that mitigate informational asymmetries. Our results are remarkably robust to alternative model specifications, across exchanges, and different measures of liquidity.

Corporate governance, Spreads, Price impact, Information-based trading, Liquidity

Abstract:
In this article we show that intraday variation in spreads for Nasdaq-listed stocks has converged to intraday variation in spreads for NYSE-listed stocks after the implementation of the new order handling rules. We attribute this convergence to the Limit Order Display Rule, which requires that limit orders be displayed in Nasdaq best bid and offer (BBO) when they are better than quotes posted by market makers. Our findings suggest that the different patterns of intraday spreads between NYSE and Nasdaq stock reported in prior studies can largely be attributed to the different treatments of limit orders between the NYSE and Nasdaq before the market reform.

Nasdaq, order handling rules, intraday pattern, spreads

Abstract:
In this article we show that intraday variation in spreads for Nasdaq-listed stocks has converged to intraday variation in spreads for NYSE-listed stocks after the implementation of the new order handling rules. We attribute this convergence to the Limit Order Display Rule, which requires that limit orders be displayed in Nasdaq best bid and offer (BBO) when they are better than quotes posted by market makers. Our findings suggest that the different patterns of intraday spreads between NYSE and Nasdaq stock reported in prior studies can largely be attributed to the different treatments of limit orders between the NYSE and Nasdaq before the market reform.

Nasdaq, order handling rules, intraday pattern, spreads

Abstract:
Despite the widely held belief that order preferencing affects market quality, no hard evidence exists on the extent and determinants of order preferencing and its impact on dealer competition and execution quality. This study shows that the bid-ask spread (dealer quote aggressiveness) is positively (negatively) related to the proportion of internalized volume during both the pre- and post-decimalization periods. Although decimal pricing led to lower order preferencing on NASDAQ, the proportion of preferenced volume after decimalization is much higher than what some prior studies had predicted. The price impact of preferenced trades is smaller than that of unpreferenced trades and preferenced trades receive greater (smaller) size (price) improvements than unpreferenced trades.

Abstract:
Despite the widely held belief that order preferencing affects market quality, no hard evidence exists on the extent and determinants of order preferencing and its impact on dealer competition and execution quality. This study shows that the bid-ask spread (dealer quote aggressiveness) is positively (negatively) related to the proportion of internalized volume during both the pre- and post-decimalization periods. Although decimal pricing led to lower order preferencing on NASDAQ, the proportion of preferenced volume after decimalization is much higher than what some prior studies had predicted. The price impact of preferenced trades is smaller than that of unpreferenced trades and preferenced trades receive greater (smaller) size (price) improvements than unpreferenced trades.

Abstract:
This paper examines execution costs and quote clustering on the NYSE and Nasdaq using 517 matching pairs of stocks after decimalization. We find that the average quoted, effective, and realized spreads of Nasdaq-listed stocks are 18%, 29%, and 58% larger, respectively, than those of NYSE-listed stocks. Stocks with a high proportion of even-sixteenth quotes prior to decimalization continue to show a high degree of quote clustering on nickel and dime quotes. Although quote clustering has a significant effect on both NYSE and Nasdaq spreads, the difference in spreads between the two markets is much larger than the level that can be accounted for by the differences in their stock attributes and quote clustering. Internalization and payment for order flow may still be responsible for the wider spreads of Nasdaq stocks.

liquidity, spreads, decimal pricing, quote clustering

Abstract:
In this study we examine the relation between corporate governance and institutional ownership. Our empirical results show that the fraction of a company’s shares that are held by institutional investors increases with the quality of its governance structure. In a similar vein, we show that the proportion of institutions that hold a firm’s shares increases with its governance quality. Our results are robust to different estimation methods and alternative model specifications. These results are consistent with the conjecture that institutional investors gravitate to stocks of companies with good governance structure to meet fiduciary responsibility as well as to minimize monitoring and exit costs.

Corporate governance, Institutional ownership, Fiduciary responsibility, Monitoring costs, Liquidity, Trading costs

Abstract:
In this paper, we analyze how tick size affects quote revisions on the NYSE and whether pre-decimalization tick sizes ($1/8 and $1/16) were binding constraints on specialists' spread- and price-quote decisions. We find that the number of quote revisions that involve changes in the spread increased dramatically after the tick-size reduction in 1997. The number of spread-quote revisions is smaller for stocks with lower prices and larger volumes during both the pre and post tick-size change periods. We interpret this result as evidence that the minimum price variation is a binding constraint on absolute spreads even after the tick-size reduction, especially for low-price and/or large-volume stocks. The number of quote revisions that involve changes in the spread (depth) is largest (smallest) during the early hour of trading, suggesting that the minimum price variation is least likely to be the binding constraint on spreads during the early hour of trading. These results suggest that decimalization is likely to further reduce price rigidity and increase price competition. Consistent with this expectation, we find a significant increase in the frequency of spread- and price-quote revisions after decimalization.

Specialists, Spreads, Depths, Liquidity providers, Minimum price variation

Abstract:
In this paper, we analyze how tick size affects quote revisions on the NYSE and whether pre-decimalization tick sizes ($1/8 and $1/16) were binding constraints on specialists' spread- and price-quote decisions. We find that the number of quote revisions that involve changes in the spread increased dramatically after the tick-size reduction in 1997. The number of spread-quote revisions is smaller for stocks with lower prices and larger volumes during both the pre and post tick-size change periods. We interpret this result as evidence that the minimum price variation is a binding constraint on absolute spreads even after the tick-size reduction, especially for low-price and/or large-volume stocks. The number of quote revisions that involve changes in the spread (depth) is largest (smallest) during the early hour of trading, suggesting that the minimum price variation is least likely to be the binding constraint on spreads during the early hour of trading. These results suggest that decimalization is likely to further reduce price rigidity and increase price competition. Consistent with this expectation, we find a significant increase in the frequency of spread- and price-quote revisions after decimalization.

Specialists, Spreads, Depths, Liquidity providers, Minimum price variation

Abstract:
This study shows that limit-order traders play a significant role in the market-making process. We find that the majority of bid-ask quotes on the NYSE reflects the trading interest of limit-order traders. We find that specialists tend to quote more actively for low-volume stocks and during early hours of trading when there are fewer limit orders submitted, suggesting that specialists step up to provide liquidity when the level of liquidity supplied by limit-order traders is low. We find that the spread is widest when both the bid and ask prices are quoted by specialists alone, and narrowest when both sides of the quote originate from the limit-order book, suggesting that competition from limit-order traders has a significant effect on spreads. We present a finer test of specialist models of spreads by using only those quotes which reflect the trading interest of specialists. Our empirical results suggest that information models of spreads are the ones that are most consistent with the observed intraday pattern of specialist spreads. Our findings also suggest that the U-shaped intraday pattern of spreads largely reflects the intraday variation in spreads established by limit-order traders.

Abstract:
We examine the role of limit-order traders and specialists in the market-making process. We find that a large portion of posted bid-ask quotes originates from the limit-order book without direct participation by specialists, and that competition between traders and specialists has a significant impact on the bid-ask spread. Specialists' spreads are widest at the open, narrow until late morning, and then level off. The U-shaped intraday pattern of spreads largely reflects the intraday variation in spreads established by limit-order traders. Lastly, the intraday variation in limit-order spreads is significantly related to the intraday variation in limit-order placements and executions.

Limit order, Bid-ask spread, Specialists

Abstract:
Theory suggests that a reduction in tick size will cause spreads to narrow on the NYSE due to the time priority rule which encourages specialists and traders to improve price. The effect of tick size on spreads is likely to be small in dealer markets (such as Nasdaq) because dealers have little incentive to improve price. Our empirical results show that the tick size reduction has no impact on the spread of Nasdaq issues that were not subjected to the new order handling rules (OHR). In contrast, the tick size reduction has a significant effect on the spread of NYSE issues and Nasdaq issues that were subjected to the OHR. These results indicate that the new OHR compel Nasdaq dealers and limit order traders to compete on price to obtain order flow. We find that the tick size change has a significant effect on the quoted depth of NYSE issues, but no effect on the quoted depth of Nasdaq issues. Our results indicate that decimalization is likely to narrow spreads, decrease dealer payments for order flow, and reduce order preferencing arrangements.

Spreads, depths, time precedence, minimum price variation

Abstract:
In this paper, we determine whether each bid (ask) quote reflects the trading interest of the specialist, limit order traders, or both for a sample of NYSE stocks in 1991. We then compare Nasdaq spreads with NYSE spreads that reflect the trading interest of the specialist. Our empirical results show that the average Nasdaq spread is significantly larger than the average NYSE specialist spread. We find that, on average, 49% of the difference between Nasdaq and specialist spreads is due to the differential use of even-eighth quotes between Nasdaq dealers and NYSE specialists. We also find that the NYSE specialist spread is significantly larger than the limit order spread, although NYSE specialists and limit order traders are similar in their use of even-eighth quotes.

Limit order, bid-ask spread, collusion, NYSE specialists, Nasdaq dealers

Abstract:
In this paper, we determine whether each bid (ask) quote reflects the trading interest of the specialist, limit order traders, or both for a sample of NYSE stocks in 1991. We then compare Nasdaq spreads with NYSE spreads that reflect the trading interest of the specialist. Our empirical results show that the average Nasdaq spread is significantly larger than the average NYSE specialist spread. We find that, on average, 49% of the difference between Nasdaq and specialist spreads is due to the differential use of even-eighth quotes between Nasdaq dealers and NYSE specialists. We also find that the NYSE specialist spread is significantly larger than the limit order spread, although NYSE specialists and limit order traders are similar in their use of even-eighth quotes.

Limit order, bid-ask spread, collusion, NYSE specialists, Nasdaq dealers

Abstract:
We consider a simple model positing that initial public offering price is equal to the present value of an entity's assets in place and growth opportunities. The model predicts that initial return is positively related to both the size and risk of growth opportunities. Consistent with this prediction, we find initial return to be positively related to both the fraction of the offer price that is accounted for by the present value of growth opportunities and various proxies of issue uncertainty. We also find that IPO investors equate one dollar of growth opportunities to approximately three quarters of tangible assets.

Abstract:
We consider a simple model positing that initial public offering price is equal to the present value of an entity's assets in place and growth opportunities. The model predicts that initial return is positively related to both the size and risk of growth opportunities. Consistent with this prediction, we find initial return to be positively related to both the fraction of the offer price that is accounted for by the present value of growth opportunities and various proxies of issue uncertainty. We also find that IPO investors equate one dollar of growth opportunities to approximately three quarters of tangible assets.

IPO returns, growth opportunities, assets in place, risk, reservation price

Abstract:
In this paper we analyze the interrelatedness of security analysis and market-making activities. Our results indicate that there exists a bi-directional and positive relation between analyst following and the number of market makers. Using detailed data on analyst and dealer affiliations, we also find that dealers are more likely to make markets in stocks that are tracked by analysts who are affiliated with the same company. Similarly, analysts follow and issue earnings forecasts more proactively for stocks that are handled by a affiliated market makers. We interpret these results as evidence that analysts and market makers work as a team to benefit the company. We discuss a possible conflict of interest between investors and brokerage firms that arises from this collaborative endeavor between analysts and dealers.

NASDAQ, analyst following, dealers, market making, earnings forecasts

Abstract:
In this paper we analyze the interrelatedness of security analysis and market-making activities. Our results indicate that there exists a bi-directional and positive relation between analyst following and the number of market makers. Using detailed data on analyst and dealer affiliations, we also find that dealers are more likely to make markets in stocks that are tracked by analysts who are affiliated with the same company. Similarly, analysts follow and issue earnings forecasts more proactively for stocks that are handled by affiliated market makers. We interpret these results as evidence that analysts and market makers work as a team to benefit the company. We discuss a possible conflict of interest between investors and brokerage firms that arises from this collaborative endeavor between analysts and dealers.

NASDAQ, Analyst following, Dealers, Market making, Earnings forecasts

Abstract:
This paper examines liquidity and quote clustering on the NYSE and Nasdaq using data after the two market reforms - the 1997 order-handling rule and minimum tick size changes. We find that Nasdaq-listed stocks exhibit wider spreads and smaller depths than NYSE-listed stocks and stocks with higher proportions of even-eighth and even-sixteenth quotes have wider quoted, effective, and realized spreads on both the NYSE and Nasdaq. This result differs from the findings by Bessembinder (1999, p. 404) that "trade execution costs on Nasdaq in late 1997 are no longer significantly explained by a tendency for liquidity providers to avoid odd-eighth quotations," and "odd-sixteenth avoidance has little relevance for explaining post-reform Nasdaq trading costs."

liquidity, spreads, depths, quote clustering, collusion

Abstract:
The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) adopted Rule 605 (formerly Rule 11Ac1-5) on November 15, 2000. The Rule requires market centers to make monthly public disclosure of execution quality. The Rule is intended to achieve a more competitive and efficient national market system by increasing the visibility of execution quality. The effective and quoted spreads for our study sample of NYSE, AMEX, and NASDAQ stocks declined significantly after implementation of the Rule. The decline cannot be attributed to a secular trend in spreads, concurrent changes in stock attributes, or the effect of decimal pricing. Although the quoted depth of NYSE stocks also declined, overall market quality is higher after implementation of the Rule. Based on these results, we conclude that the SEC's goal to improve execution quality through more transparent markets has been achieved.

Execution costs, Market quality, Information disclosure, Market makers, Quote competition

Abstract:
We examine execution costs and quote clustering on the NYSE and NASDAQ using 517 matching pairs of stocks after decimalization. We find that the mean spread of NASDAQ stocks is greater than the mean spread of NYSE stocks when spreads are equally weighted across stocks and the difference is greater for smaller stocks. In contrast, the mean NASDAQ spread is narrower than the mean NYSE spread when spreads are volume-weighted and the difference is statistically significant for large stocks. Both NYSE and NASDAQ stocks exhibit high degrees of quote clustering on nickels and dimes and quote clustering has a significant effect on spreads in both markets.

Abstract:
We examine execution costs and quote clustering on the NYSE and NASDAQ using 517 matching pairs of stocks after decimalization. We find that the mean spread of NASDAQ stocks is greater than the mean spread of NYSE stocks when spreads are equally weighted across stocks and the difference is greater for smaller stocks. In contrast, the mean NASDAQ spread is narrower than the mean NYSE spread when spreads are volume-weighted and the difference is statistically significant for large stocks. Both NYSE and NASDAQ stocks exhibit high degrees of quote clustering on nickels and dimes and quote clustering has a significant effect on spreads in both markets.

Trading cost, Decimal pricing, Quote clustering, Averaging method

Abstract:
We show that the effect of the tick-size change on NASDAQ spreads depends critically on the Order Handling Rules (OHR). Our empirical results show that the tick-size reduction has no impact on the spread of NASDAQ issues that were not subject to the new OHR, but has a significant effect on the spread of NASDAQ issues that were subject to the OHR. These results indicate that smaller tick sizes are valuable in reducing market friction only if market makers compete on price with public traders. Our results are in line with the finding of prior studies that execution costs are lower in auction markets than in pure dealer markets.

Abstract:
We show that the effect of the tick-size change on NASDAQ spreads depends critically on the Order Handling Rules (OHR). Our empirical results show that the tick-size reduction has no impact on the spread of NASDAQ issues that were not subject to the new OHR, but has a significant effect on the spread of NASDAQ issues that were subject to the OHR. These results indicate that smaller tick sizes are valuable in reducing market friction only if market makers compete on price with public traders. Our results are in line with the finding of prior studies that execution costs are lower in auction markets than in pure dealer markets.

Abstract:
We show that the effect of the tick-size change on NASDAQ spreads depends critically on the Order Handling Rules (OHR). Our empirical results show that the tick-size reduction has no impact on the spread of NASDAQ issues that were not subject to the new OHR, but has a significant effect on the spread of NASDAQ issues that were subject to the OHR. These results indicate that smaller tick sizes are valuable in reducing market friction only if market makers compete on price with public traders. Our results are in line with the finding of prior studies that execution costs are lower in auction markets than in pure dealer markets.

Abstract:
In this study we analyze the effect of tick size on information-based trading. Although prior studies provide extensive evidence on the effect of tick size on market quality measures such as spreads, depths, and return volatility, there is little evidence as to the effect of tick size on the informational efficiency of asset price. Our results indicate that the probability of information-based trading during the post-decimal period is significantly greater than the corresponding figure during the pre-decimal period. We also show that the increase in information-based trading after decimalization cannot be attributed to concurrent changes in stock attributes. We interpret our findings as evidence that the smaller tick size under penny pricing encourages information-based trading and thereby raises the informational efficiency of asset price.

Abstract:
In this study we analyze the effect of tick size on information-based trading. Although prior studies provide extensive evidence on the effect of tick size on market quality measures such as spreads, depths, and return volatility, there is little evidence as to the effect of tick size on the informational efficiency of asset price. Our results indicate that the probability of information-based trading during the post-decimal period is significantly greater than the corresponding figure during the pre-decimal period. We also show that the increase in information-based trading after decimalization cannot be attributed to concurrent changes in stock attributes. We interpret our findings as evidence that the smaller tick size under penny pricing encourages information-based trading and thereby raises the informational efficiency of asset price.

tick size, information-based trading, decimalization, PIN measure, information efficiency

Abstract:
In this paper we study the quote revision behavior of NASDAQ market makers by analyzing inter-temporal changes in their spread and depth quotes. Using individual dealer quote and trade data for a sample of 2,319 stocks, we find that NASDAQ dealers make more frequent revisions in depths than in spreads and the extent of liquidity management is greater for stocks of smaller companies, lower-priced stocks, and stocks with larger trade sizes and fewer number of transactions. We show that intraday variation in the number of quote revisions follows the U-shaped pattern, indicating that the extent of liquidity management is greater during the early and late hours of trading than during midday.

Abstract:
In this paper we study the quote revision behavior of NASDAQ market makers by analyzing inter-temporal changes in their spread and depth quotes. Using individual dealer quote and trade data for a sample of 2,319 stocks, we find that NASDAQ dealers make more frequent revisions in depths than in spreads and the extent of liquidity management is greater for stocks of smaller companies, lower-priced stocks, and stocks with larger trade sizes and fewer number of transactions. We show that intraday variation in the number of quote revisions follows the U-shaped pattern, indicating that the extent of liquidity management is greater during the early and late hours of trading than during midday.

Abstract:
Recent studies show that decimal pricing led to significant reductions in the spread and depth on the NYSE. In this paper, we examine how the observed changes in the spread and depth can be attributed to different factors. We show that stocks with higher proportions of one-tick spreads and odd-sixteenth quotes, and more frequent trading before decimalization experienced larger declines in the spread and depth afterwards. We interpret this result as evidence of reduced binding constraints and increased price competition under decimal pricing. We also find that decimal pricing led to nontrivial changes in select stock attributes, and that these changes exerted an additional impact on spreads and depths. Our results suggest that sub-penny pricing may further reduce the spreads of high-volume, low-risk, or low-price stocks.

binding constraint, tick size, stepping ahead, spreads, depths, decimal pricing

Abstract:
We show that the majority of quotes posted by NASDAQ dealers are noncompetitive and only 19.5% (18.4%) of bid (ask) quotes are at the inside. The percentage of dealer quotes that are at the inside is higher for stocks with wider spreads, fewer market makers, and more frequent trading, and lower for stocks with larger trade sizes and higher return volatility. These results support our conjecture that dealers have greater incentives to be at the inside for stocks with larger market-making revenues and smaller costs. Dealers post large depths when their quotes are at the inside and frequently quote the minimum required depth when they are not at the inside. The latter quotation behavior leads to the negative intertemporal correlation between dealer spread and depth.

Abstract:
In this article we analyze the quotation behavior of NASDAQ market makers using individual dealer quote and trade data. We find that the majority (58.2%) of quotes posted by NASDAQ dealers are noncompetitive (i.e., both the bid and ask quotes are not at the inside market) and only 19.5% (18.4%) of bid (ask) quotes are at the inside market. The percentage of dealer quotes that are at the inside market is higher for stocks with wider spreads, fewer market makers, and more frequent trading, and lower for stocks with larger trade sizes and higher return volatility. These results support our conjecture that dealers have greater incentives to be at the inside for stocks with larger market-making revenues and smaller costs. We also find that dealers post large depths when their quotes are at the inside and frequently quote the minimum required depth when they are not at the inside. We show that the latter quotation behavior leads to the negative inter-temporal correlation between dealer spread and depth.

Spreads, Depths, Dealer quotes, NASDAQ, Liquidity providers

Abstract:
In this study we examine the relation between the bid-ask spread from the daily CRSP data and the bid-ask spread from the intraday TAQ data using the two variables, Ask and Bid, that were added to the CRSP database in December 2005. We show that the CRSP-based spread is highly correlated with the TAQ-based spread, especially for NASDAQ stocks. Specifically, we show that at least 91% (78%) of cross-sectional variation in the TAQ-based spread of NASDAQ stocks (NYSE/AMEX stocks) can be explained by the CRSP-based spread during 1993-2007. The simple CRSP-based spread provides a better approximation of the TAQ-based spread than most other low-frequency liquidity measures that are suggested in prior studies. Overall, our empirical results suggest that the simple CRSP-based bid-ask spread could be a good substitute for the TAQ-based bid-ask spread in most academic and practical applications.

Bid-ask spreads, TAQ, CRSP, Approximation, Low-frequency liquidity measures

Abstract:
In this paper we analyze how stock market liquidity affects the abnormal return to target firms in mergers and tender offers. We predict that target firms with poorer stock market liquidity (relative to that of acquiring firms) receive larger announcement day abnormal returns based on the following considerations. First, target firms with poorer stock market liquidity receive greater liquidity improvements after a merger or tender offer. Second, deals that involve less liquid targets are less anticipated and/or more likely to be completed. Third, less liquid stocks have more diverse reservation prices across shareholders and thus require a higher takeover return. Consistent with these expectations, we show that abnormal returns to target firms' shareholders are significantly and positively related to the difference in liquidity (measured by the bid-ask spread) between acquirers and targets as well as the magnitude of target firms' liquidity improvement.

Mergers, Tender offers, Bid-ask spread, Liquidity premium, Abnormal returns

Abstract:
In this study, we examine the effect of pre-trade transparency on market quality using data before and after the introduction of SuperMontage. Our results show that both bid-ask spreads and return volatility declined significantly after the implementation of SuperMontage. In addition, SuperMontage led to significant improvements in the SEC Rule 605 execution quality measures (e.g., faster executions and higher fill rates). Overall, our results indicate that SuperMontage improved market and execution quality on NASDAQ through greater pre-trade transparency and the integrated, more efficient quotation and trading system.

Execution costs, Market quality, Liquidity, Market transparency, Market participants, Quote competition

Abstract:
We establish general conditions under which younger investors should invest a larger proportion of their wealth in risky assets than older ones. In the finite horizon dynamic setting, we show that such phenomenon, known as time diversification, can occur in the presence of human wealth, target consumption, or mean-reverting stock returns. We formalize two alternative notions of time diversification commonly confounded in the literature. Analytic solutions are provided for both time-series and cross-sectional forms of time diversification. To our best knowledge, this paper is the first to solve in closed-form the hedging demand for a CARA investor with inter-temporal consumption and a finite horizon, facing mean-reverting expected returns.

Time diversification, Portfolio choice, Asset allocation

Abstract:
We test the conjecture that the specialist system on the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) provides better liquidity services than the NASDAQ dealer market in times of high return volatility when adverse selection and inventory risks are high. We motivate our conjecture from the observation that there is a designated specialist for each stock on the NYSE who is directly responsible for maintaining a reasonable level of liquidity (i.e., the bid-ask spread) as the liquidity provider of last resort, whereas there is no such designated dealer on NASDAQ. Empirical evidence is consistent with our conjecture. In a similar vein, we show that the specialist system provides better liquidity than the dealer market in thin markets.

Dealer, Specialist, Market structure, Bid-ask spreads, Fair and orderly markets

Abstract:
In this study we examine the temporal dynamics of dealer market share and their ramification for competition and trading costs using a large sample of NASDAQ securities. Our results show that although the total market share of the top five dealers is relatively stable over time, there is significant monthly variation in the composition of the top five dealers. We show that market share turbulence among top dealers is another form of competition that narrows bid-ask spreads, especially for stocks with less competitive market structure.

Dealer market, market concentration, competition, turbulence, market structure, bid-ask spreads

Abstract:
We analyze data provided by NASDAQ to examine how quote aggressiveness affects dealer market share and whether the practice of internalization mitigates the impact of quote aggressiveness. Our empirical results show that although internalization does not reduce the impact of price aggressiveness on dealer market share, it mitigates the impact of size aggressiveness. This result suggests that although internalization may not affect the dealer's incentive to post aggressive prices, it may reduce the incentive to post large depths. We find that aggressive quotes are more effective in raising dealer market share in stocks with a less competitive (more concentrated) market structure. Our results also show that the effective spread is wider (narrower) for stocks with a smaller price (size) elasticity of dealer market share.

Dealer market share, Market concentration, Herfindahl-index, Internalization, Quote aggressiveness, Decimalization

Abstract:
This paper examines the relation between the speed of price adjustment and stock ownership by foreign and local institutional investors using data from the Korean stock market. We show that returns of stocks with high foreign institutional ownership lead returns of stocks with low foreign institutional ownership, especially after foreign ownership restriction is lifted. Likewise, returns of stocks with high local institutional ownership lead returns of stocks with low local institutional ownership. These results support the idea that foreign institutional (local institutional) investors have faster access to or processing power of new information than local institutional (local individual) investors.

foreign ownership, institutional ownership, speed of price adjustment, information, local investors

Abstract:
In this study we analyze credit watch and rating actions made during 1992 through 2005 to understand the role of credit watches in the credit rating process. We analyze press releases accompanying credit watch actions and rating changes and show that watch actions are more frequently prompted by specific, publicly known events such as mergers or acquisitions than are rating actions. The likelihood that a watch action precedes a rating action varies systematically with proxies for investor demand for credit quality information and the adverse consequences of issuing a rating change prematurely. We also show that down watches are less likely than up watches to indicate the direction of subsequent rating changes, and that credit rating agencies (CRAs) are more likely to issue watches when the total market impact of the new credit quality information is large. Overall, our results support the hypothesis that credit watches both support CRAs' information-supplying role and facilitate the use of credit ratings in contracting.

Credit watches, Credit rating agencies (CRAs), Bond ratings, Market impact, Contracting, Information supply

Abstract:
We show that competitive quotes help increase dealer market share on NASDAQ, despite the fact that a large proportion of order flow is preferenced. We find that decimal pricing and the introduction of new trading platforms such as SuperSOES and SuperMontage have significantly changed the effect of quote aggressiveness on dealer market share. In particular, decimal pricing reduces (increases) the price (size) elasticity, SuperSOES increases the size elasticity, and SuperMontage increases both the size and price elasticity of dealer market share. We also show that market centers provide greater price improvements and faster executions when they post competitive quotes.

Dealer market share, Quote aggressiveness, Order preferencing, Decimalization, SuperSOES, SuperMontage

Abstract:
We examine the effect of tick size on quotation behavior in a naturally-controlled experimental setting. Of the top six Electronic Communications Networks (ECNs), three allow sub-penny quotes (group S) and three do not (group P). For a sample of stocks that trade on all six of these ECNs, we find that group S ECNs have narrower spreads than group P ECNs, especially for low-price stocks. Even after correcting for left-truncation and price discreteness, we find that spreads for the same stocks are tighter on group S ECNs, suggesting that a smaller tick size fosters greater price competition. We find that the one penny tick is frequently a binding constraint on the inside spread and the relaxation of the binding constraint would result in a 0.7 cent (16%) reduction in the inside spread.

Decimalization, Sub-penny Quotation, Markov Chain Monte Carlo, Quote Aggressiveness, Spreads, Electronic Communications Networks

Abstract:
We analyze market liquidity (i.e., spreads and depths) and quote clustering using data from the Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange (KLSE), where the tick size increases with share price in a stepwise fashion. We find that stocks that are subject to larger mandatory tick sizes have wider spreads and less quote clustering. We also find that liquidity providers on the KLSE do not always quote larger depths for stocks with larger tick sizes. Overall, our results suggest that larger tick sizes for higher priced stocks are detrimental to market liquidity, although the adverse effect of larger tick sizes is mitigated by lower negotiation costs (i.e., less quote clustering).

tick size, liquidity, spread, depth, quote clustering

Abstract:
This paper tests the relation between intellectual collaboration and the quality of the intellectual output using academic papers published in prestigious finance journals during 1988-2005. We use the number of authors of a paper to measure the extent of intellectual collaboration and the number of citations that a paper receives (adjusted by the number of years since the paper's publication) as a measure of its intellectual value. Based on empirical tests, we find that papers with more authors are cited more often. This relation does not hold for purely theoretical papers. Coauthoring with a prolific author leads to higher quality papers, but coauthoring with colleagues at the same institution leads to neither higher nor lower quality papers. Papers with four authors are cited most often. Overall, when it comes to intellectual collaboration, our results counter the notion that too many cooks spoil the broth.

intellectual collaboration, coauthors, citation, Google Scholar, paper quality

Abstract:
Liquidity providers on the NYSE make faster quote adjustments towards equilibrium spreads and depths than they do on NASDAQ. Liquidity providers in both markets make faster spread and depth adjustments for stocks with more frequent trading, greater return volatility, higher prices, smaller market capitalizations, and smaller trade sizes. We find that stocks with greater information-based trading and in more competitive trading environments exhibit faster quote adjustments. The speed of quote adjustment is faster after decimalization in both markets. These results are robust and not driven by differences in stock attributes between the two markets or time periods. Overall, our results indicate that stock attributes, market structure, and tick size exert a significant impact on the speed of quote adjustment.

Spreads, Depths, Market structure, Market efficiency, Tick size, Quote revision, Adverse- selection costs

Abstract:
In this paper we suggest that market makers deduce the extent of the adverse selection problem associated with a stock (and set up the bid-ask spread accordingly) by observing how many financial analysts are following that stock. Market makers do this based on the belief that more financial analysts would follow a stock with a greater extent of information asymmetry since the value of private information increases with informational asymmetry. Similarly, financial analysts deduce the profit potential of a stock from the size of the spread set up by market makers (based on the expectation that market makers would set up a greater spread for the stock with a greater information asymmetry). This structural view of the process determining the bid-ask spread and analyst following is empirically tested using a simultaneous equations regression analysis. The empirical results are generally consistent with this view. Hence, our study supports the notion that the decisions of two major players in the financial markets (i.e.. market makers and financial analysts) are made interactively.

information asymmetry, bid-ask spread, analysts' forecast

Abstract:
This study examines the intertemporal and cross-sectional association between the bid-ask spread and insider trading. Empirical results from the cross-sectional regression analysis reveal that market makers establish larger spreads for stocks with a greater extent of insider trading. The time-series regression analysis, however, finds no evidence of spread changes on insider trading days. These results suggest that although market makers may not be able to detect insider trading when it occurs, they protect themselves by maintaining larger spreads for stocks with a greater tendency of insider trading. The results also reveal that market makers establish larger spreads when there are unusually large transactions. In addition, this study finds that spreads are positively associated with risk and negatively with trading volume, the number of exchange listings, share price, and firm size.

Abstract:
This study presents an integrated investigation into the factors affecting executive ownership, the market value of the finn, and executive compensation by explicitly incorporating the simultaneity of the process determining these variables into the empirical estimation, Overall, the results of the study support the notion that a finn's market value, executive stock ownership, and executive compensation are jointly determined. Further, the findings suggest that executive stock ownership and executive compensation may serve as a type of bond by which top executives are induced to act in the best interests of shareholders, The study also finds that a finn's q ratio and an executive's job-specific experience (as well as finn size) are important determinants of executive compensation. This result is generally consistent with the view that the firm optimally establishes its managerial compensation plan in response to both its operating environment and the specific personal characteristics of its chief executive(s).

Executive ownership, Tobin's q, Executive compensation

Abstract:
In this study, we examine the impact of security analysts' monitoring and marketing functions on firms' market value. We postulate that security analysts' monitoring of corporate performance helps motivate managers, thus reducing the agency costs associated with the separation of ownership and control. We also argue that the information intermediary function provided by security analysts helps expand the breadth of investor cognizance. Consistent with these conjectures, this study finds that analyst following exerts a significant and positive impact on firms' market value. We also find evidence that security analysts have a stronger incentive to follow stocks of high-quality companies, since such stocks are easier to market. Hence, the security analysis activities appear to be determined, in part, by the marketing considerations of brokerage companies.

Abstract:
This paper presents a contingent claims analysis of output decisions for the firm facing technological and demand uncertainty. The paper reveals that: (i) the optimal output level increases with the higher interest rate when the firm is subject to demand (and technological) uncertainty; (ii) the effect of demand volatility and production lead time on the optimal output level could be either positive or negative; (iii) the optimal project value decreases with the higher demand volatility; (iv) the optimal project value decreases with the longer production lead time when the firm is subject to demand uncertainty; and (v) the optimal project value decreases with the higher interest rate when the firm is subject to demand uncertainty; it increases with the higher interest rate, however, when the firm is subject to both demand and technological uncertainty. Some important managerial implications are discussed.

Abstract:
In this study, we argue that share price reaction to a ®rm's capital expenditure decisions depends critically on the market's assessment of the quality of its investment opportunities. We postulate that announcements of increases (decreases) in capital expenditures positively (negatively) affect the stock prices of firms with valuable investment opportunities. Contrarily, we predict that announcements of increases (decreases) in capital spending negatively (positively) affect the share prices of firms without such opportunities. Our empirical results are generally consistent with these predictions. Overall, empirical evidence supports our conjecture that it is the quality of the firm's investment opportunities rather than its industry affliation which determines the share price reaction to its capital expenditure decisions.

Investment opportunities, Tobin's q, Event study, Capital expenditure

Abstract:
This paper employs contingent claims analysis to decompose the firm's systematic risk into the risk as- sociated with its assets in place and the risk arising from future growth opportunities. 5 Contingent claims analysis is well-suited to such decomposition, since a growth opportunity can be regarded as a call option on a real asset where the option's exercise price is the fu- ture investment needed to acquire the asset. Whether the option has any value at expiration depends on the asset's future value. In essence, this study predicts that the greater the portion of a stock's market value ac- counted for by the firm's growth opportunities, the higher the stock risk. Overall, our empirical results strongly support this hypothesis.

Abstract:
This study finds that a strong bibliometric regularity exists in the publication pattern in the economics literature; the number of authors publishing n papers is approximately l/nc of those publishing one paper. The economics literature conforms very well to the model with c = 1.84 if data are taken from a large collection of journals. When applied to individual journaIb, the result shows that values of c range from 2.04 to 3.11. This paper also reports the degree of author concentration among leading economics journals. Finally, this study finds that the graduates of three graduate programs account for more than half of the top 100 authors, indicating strong institutional dominance in the production of the most prolific authors.

academic output, bibliometrics

Abstract:
A recent article in this Journal employs the capital-asset pricing model for the analysis of the newsboy problem and shows how the covariance risk affects the optimal inventory policy. The purpose of this paper is to sharpen the optimality conditions given by the article and hence to provide a simple method for finding the solution. Under reasonable assumptions, this paper shows that the optimal ordering policy can be described by a single equation, regardless of the sign of the covariance term.

finance, inventory, risk

Abstract:
Empirical evidence suggests that the voting premium in the Korean securities market is strongly related to the structure of corporate ownership. We find that the premium attached to voting stock is positively and significantly associated with the control value of a block of shares held by minority shareholders. We also find that the premium is negatively related to both the fraction of shares that are voting shares and the market value of equity. Empirical results indicate that private benefits of control in Korea are worth about 10% of the value of equity.

Voting right, Shapley value, Oceanic game, Ownership structure

Abstract:
This study compares the components of the bid-ask spread estimated from quotes that reflect the trading interest of specialists with those estimated from limit-order quotes and all available quotes for a sample of NYSE stocks. The results show that the adverse selection component of the spread estimated from specialist quotes is significantly smaller than the corresponding figures from limit-order quotes and entire quotes. We interpret this as evidence that New York Stock Exchange specialists transfer at least a part of adverse selection costs to outsiders through the discretionary use of limit orders. Our results show that the estimation/interpretation of the components of the spread using quote data that include both specialist and limit-order interests is problematic.

Limit-order, bid-ask spread, NYSE specialists, spread components

Abstract:
Prior studies offer various empirical models to decompose the observed bid-ask spread into the adverse-selection and transitory (order-processing and inventory-holding) components. There is limited evidence, however, on whether the spread components estimated from these models indeed measure what they purport to measure. In this study, we show that the estimates of the adverse-selection component given by these models are positively and significantly related to the probability of information-based trading (PIN), after controlling for the endogeneity of the PIN and other stock attributes. These results provide direct empirical support for the spread component models examined in the present study.