Sandra Wachter

University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute

1 St. Giles

University of Oxford

Oxford OX1 3PG Oxfordshire, Oxfordshire OX1 3JS

United Kingdom

  • University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute

SCHOLARLY PAPERS

26

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Top 3,745

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1,163

Scholarly Papers (26)

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1.

A Right to Reasonable Inferences: Re-Thinking Data Protection Law in the Age of Big Data and AI

Columbia Business Law Review, 2019(2)
Number of pages: 130 Posted: 05 Oct 2018 Last Revised: 25 Jun 2019
Sandra Wachter and Brent Mittelstadt
University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute and University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute
Downloads 14,359 (646)
Citation 56

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Accountability, Artificial Intelligence, Automated Decision-Making, Big Data, Copyright, Data Analytics, Data Protection, Discrimination, General Data Protection Regulation, Inferences, Intellectual Property, Privacy, Trade Secrets

2.

Why a Right to Explanation of Automated Decision-Making Does Not Exist in the General Data Protection Regulation

International Data Privacy Law, 2017
Number of pages: 47 Posted: 24 Jan 2017 Last Revised: 25 Feb 2022
Sandra Wachter, Brent Mittelstadt and Luciano Floridi
University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute and Yale University - Digital Ethics Center
Downloads 11,757 (906)
Citation 60

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artificial intelligence, algorithms, automated decision-making, data protection, General Data Protection Regulation, right to explanation, right of access

3.

Why Fairness Cannot Be Automated: Bridging the Gap Between EU Non-Discrimination Law and AI

Computer Law & Security Review 41 (2021): 105567.
Number of pages: 72 Posted: 27 Mar 2020 Last Revised: 28 Sep 2021
Sandra Wachter, Brent Mittelstadt and Chris Russell
University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute and University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute
Downloads 7,314 (2,014)
Citation 7

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AI, EU, Non-Discrimination Law, Fairness, Discrimination, Bias, Algorithms, Law, Demographic Parity, Machine Learning, Artificial Intelligence, Algorithms

4.

Counterfactual Explanations Without Opening the Black Box: Automated Decisions and the GDPR

Harvard Journal of Law & Technology, 31 (2), 2018
Number of pages: 47 Posted: 02 Nov 2017 Last Revised: 22 Apr 2019
Sandra Wachter, Brent Mittelstadt and Chris Russell
University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute and University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute
Downloads 6,406 (2,522)
Citation 781

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accountability, algorithms, artificial intelligence, auditing, automated decision-making, counterfactuals, data ethics, data protection, explainability, GDPR, interpretability, machine learning, right to explanation, transparency

5.

Bias Preservation in Machine Learning: The Legality of Fairness Metrics Under EU Non-Discrimination Law

West Virginia Law Review, Vol. 123, No. 3, 2021
Number of pages: 51 Posted: 03 Mar 2021 Last Revised: 19 Aug 2021
Sandra Wachter, Brent Mittelstadt and Chris Russell
University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute and University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute
Downloads 5,078 (3,793)
Citation 38

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artificial intelligence, machine learning, law, discrimination, non-discrimination, anti-discrimination, algorithms, European Union, bias, fairness, automated decision-making, fairness metrics, equality, substantive equality, formal equality, auditing

6.

Affinity Profiling and Discrimination by Association in Online Behavioural Advertising

Berkeley Technology Law Journal, Vol. 35, No. 2, 2020
Number of pages: 74 Posted: 13 Jun 2019 Last Revised: 25 Sep 2022
Sandra Wachter
University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute
Downloads 4,968 (3,942)
Citation 9

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advertising, algorithmic bias, artificial intelligence, data protection, discrimination, discrimination by association, equality, European Union, fairness, General Data Protection Regulation, group privacy, machine learning, non-discrimination law, privacy, profiling

7.

The Ethics of Algorithms: Mapping the Debate

Big Data & Society, Vol. 3(2), DOI: 10.1177/2053951716679679, 2016
Number of pages: 68 Posted: 07 Feb 2017
Brent Mittelstadt, Patrick Allo, Mariarosaria Taddeo, Sandra Wachter and Luciano Floridi
University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute and Yale University - Digital Ethics Center
Downloads 3,372 (7,488)
Citation 84

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Algorithms, Artificial Intelligence, Automation, Big Data, Data Analytics, Data Mining, Ethics, Machine Learning

8.

Artificial Intelligence and the 'Good Society': The US, EU, and UK Approach

Number of pages: 24 Posted: 27 Jan 2017 Last Revised: 08 Apr 2020
Corinne Cath, Sandra Wachter, Brent Mittelstadt, Mariarosaria Taddeo and Luciano Floridi
University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute and Yale University - Digital Ethics Center
Downloads 3,118 (8,482)
Citation 42

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Algorithms, Artificial Intelligence, Data Ethics, Good Society, Human Dignity, Politics, Law, Economics

9.

The Theory of Artificial Immutability: Protecting Algorithmic Groups under Anti-Discrimination Law

Tulane Law Review 97 (2022): 149
Number of pages: 50 Posted: 06 May 2022 Last Revised: 14 May 2024
Sandra Wachter
University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute
Downloads 2,953 (9,205)
Citation 15

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law, legal theory, artificial intelligence, machine learning, bias, fairness, discrimination, equality, anti-discrimination, non-discrimination, protected groups, protected classes, computer science

10.

Data Protection in the Age of Big Data

Nature Electronics Vol. 2, 6–7 (2019), DOI: 10.1038/s41928-018-0193-y
Number of pages: 4 Posted: 12 Apr 2019
Sandra Wachter
University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute
Downloads 1,800 (20,296)

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algorithmic accountability, AI, data protection,GDPR, a right to reasonable inferences

11.

Normative Challenges of Identification in the Internet of Things: Privacy, Profiling, Discrimination, and the GDPR

Computer Law & Security Review, 34 (3), 436-449, 2018
Number of pages: 22 Posted: 07 Dec 2017 Last Revised: 16 Jun 2018
Sandra Wachter
University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute
Downloads 1,666 (22,846)
Citation 3

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Data Protection, Digital Ethics, Identity, Identification, Internet of Things, Privacy, Profiling, Discrimination, GDPR, Review

12.

The GDPR and the Internet of Things: A Three-Step Transparency Model

Law, Innovation and Technology doi.org/10.1080/17579961.2018.1527479
Number of pages: 32 Posted: 06 Mar 2018 Last Revised: 09 Oct 2018
Sandra Wachter
University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute
Downloads 1,485 (27,173)
Citation 9

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Data protection, Ethics, Privacy, Internet of things, Profiling

13.

Do large language models have a legal duty to tell the truth?

Royal Society Open Science
Number of pages: 49 Posted: 15 Apr 2024 Last Revised: 16 May 2024
Sandra Wachter, Brent Mittelstadt and Chris Russell
University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute and University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute
Downloads 1,389 (30,026)
Citation 1

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artificial intelligence, generative AI, human rights, European Union, law, ethics, philosophy of science, hallucinations, large language models, truth, democracy, epistemology

14.

Explaining Explanations in AI

Proceedings of FAT* ’19: Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (FAT* ’19), January 29–31, 2019, Atlanta, GA, USA. ACM, New York, NY, USA, doi/10.1145/3287560.3287574, ISBN: 978-1-4503-6125-5
Number of pages: 10 Posted: 27 Nov 2018
Brent Mittelstadt, Chris Russell and Sandra Wachter
University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute and University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute
Downloads 1,185 (37,792)
Citation 26

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interpretability, explanations, accountability, philosophy of science, data ethics, machine learning, artificial intelligence, automated decision-making

15.

The Unfairness of Fair Machine Learning: Levelling down and strict egalitarianism by default

Michigan Technology Law Review (2023)
Number of pages: 49 Posted: 24 Jan 2023 Last Revised: 26 Apr 2024
Brent Mittelstadt, Sandra Wachter and Chris Russell
University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute and University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute
Downloads 1,165 (38,768)

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artificial intelligence, machine learning, fairness, bias, discrimination, distributive justice, philosophy, egalitarianism, equality law, anti-discrimination law

16.

Trustworthy Artificial Intelligence and the European Union AI Act: On the Conflation of Trustworthiness and the Acceptability of Risk

Number of pages: 35 Posted: 03 Oct 2022
Johann Laux, Sandra Wachter and Brent Mittelstadt
University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute and University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute
Downloads 1,087 (42,992)

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Artificial Intelligence, AI Act, Trust, Regulation, Risk, Law, European Union, Policy, Literature Review

17.

Three Pathways for Standardisation and Ethical Disclosure by Default under the European Union Artificial Intelligence Act

Laux, J., Wachter, S. and Mittelstadt, B. Three pathways for standardisation and ethical disclosure by default under the European Union Artificial Intelligence Act. Forthcoming in Computer Law & Security Review.
Number of pages: 33 Posted: 25 Feb 2023 Last Revised: 26 Mar 2024
Johann Laux, Sandra Wachter and Brent Mittelstadt
University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute and University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute
Downloads 1,047 (45,231)
Citation 11

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Artificial Intelligence, AI Act, Standardisation, AI Ethics, Regulation

18.

Neutralizing Online Behavioural Advertising: Algorithmic Targeting with Market Power as an Unfair Commercial Practice

Common Market Law Review, 58(3), 2021
Number of pages: 31 Posted: 12 Apr 2021 Last Revised: 25 Sep 2022
Johann Laux, Sandra Wachter and Brent Mittelstadt
University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute and University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute
Downloads 932 (53,204)
Citation 3

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Online behavioural advertising, digital single market, consumer law, competition law, Unfair Commercial Practices Directive, market regulation, law and economics, platform economy, Digital Markets Act, Digital Services Act, EU, European Union

19.

Privacy: Primus Inter Pares ― Privacy as a Precondition for Self-Development, Personal Fulfilment and the Free Enjoyment of Fundamental Human Rights

Number of pages: 26 Posted: 24 Jan 2017
Sandra Wachter
University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute
Downloads 883 (57,296)
Citation 2

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Data Protection, European Convention of Human Rights, Information Technologies, Legal Theory, Personal Fulfilment, Privacy, Self-Development

20.

Transparent, Explainable, and Accountable AI for Robotics

Science Robotics, Vol. 2, Issue 6, eaan6080, 31 May 2017, DOI:10.1126/scirobotics.aan6080
Number of pages: 5 Posted: 03 Aug 2017 Last Revised: 02 Dec 2017
Sandra Wachter, Brent Mittelstadt and Luciano Floridi
University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute and Yale University - Digital Ethics Center
Downloads 873 (58,187)
Citation 3

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Ethics; Philosophy; Computer Science; Artificial Intelligence; Robotics; Data Protection

21.

Limitations and Loopholes in the EU AI Act and AI Liability Directives: What This Means for the European Union, the United States, and Beyond

Yale Journal of Law & Technology, Volume 26, Issue 3
Number of pages: 48 Posted: 15 Sep 2024
Sandra Wachter
University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute
Downloads 569 (101,828)
Citation 4

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artificial intelligence, European Union, product liability, AI Act, law

22.

How Fair AI Can Make Us Richer

Wachter, S. How Fair AI Can Make Us Richer. European Data Protection Law Review. Volume 7, Issue 3 (2021). pp. 367 - 372. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21552/edpl/2021/3/5
Number of pages: 6 Posted: 06 May 2022
Sandra Wachter
University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute
Downloads 404 (153,226)

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artificial intelligence, fairness, bias, discrimination, equality, non-discrimination, law, EU, equality duties

23.

Taming the Few: Platform Regulation, Independent Audits, and the Risks of Capture Created by the DMA and DSA

Computer Law & Security Review, 43 (2021): 105613.
Number of pages: 28 Posted: 03 May 2022 Last Revised: 17 Nov 2022
Johann Laux, Sandra Wachter and Brent Mittelstadt
University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute and University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute
Downloads 370 (169,100)
Citation 9

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Digital Markets Act, Digital Services Act, Platform Economy, Platform Regulation, Digital Markets, Auditing, Market Power, Regulatory Capture, Incentives, Data Access, European Union Law, Targeted Advertising, Recommender Systems, Social Media

24.

The Concentration-after-Personalisation Index (CAPI): Governing Effects of Personalisation Using the Example of Targeted Online Advertising

Number of pages: 30 Posted: 19 Apr 2022
Johann Laux, Fabian Stephany, Chris Russell, Sandra Wachter and Brent Mittelstadt
University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute, affiliation not provided to SSRN, University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute and University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute
Downloads 253 (252,602)

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targeted advertising, personalisation, consumer welfare, consumer protection, consumer law, competition law; EU law, platform regulation, Digital Services Act, AI Act, Unfair Commercial Practices Directive, digital markets, law and economics, novel metrics

25.

How AI Challenges the Medical Device Regulation: Patient Safety, Benefits, and Intended Uses

Daria Onitiu, Sandra Wachter, Brent Mittelstadt, How AI challenges the medical device regulation: patient safety, benefits, and intended uses, Journal of Law and the Biosciences (9 April 2024).
Number of pages: 50 Posted: 05 Dec 2023 Last Revised: 11 Apr 2024
Daria Onitiu, Sandra Wachter and Brent Mittelstadt
University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute and University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute
Downloads 229 (278,417)

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Artificial Intelligence, Medical Device Regulation, AI-based medical device

26.

OxonFair: A Flexible Toolkit for Algorithmic Fairness

Number of pages: 37 Posted: 18 Jul 2024 Last Revised: 05 Nov 2024
Eoin Delaney, Ziaho Fu, Sandra Wachter, Brent Mittelstadt and Chris Russell
University of Oxford, University of Oxford, University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute, University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute and University of Oxford - Oxford Internet Institute
Downloads 47 (829,429)

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Fairness Toolkit, Algorithmic Fairness, Bias, Machine Learning, Trustworthy AI