University of Edinburgh - Centre for Medical Informatics, University of Edinburgh - Centre for Medical Informatics, University of Liverpool - Institute of Population Health Sciences, University of Liverpool - Department of Public Health Policy and Systems, University of Oxford - Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, University of Edinburgh - Centre for Medical Informatics, Public Health England - Emerging Infections and Zoonoses Unit, University of Edinburgh - Centre for Medical Informatics, University of Liverpool - Liverpool Clinical Trials Centre, University of Birmingham - Institute of Microbiology & Infection, Queen Mary University of London - Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Liverpool - Liverpool Clinical Trials Centre, University of Liverpool - NIHR Health Protection Research Unit for Emerging and Zoonotic Infection, MRC University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, University of Liverpool - Women’s and Children’s Health, Swansea University - Health Data Research UK, University of Oxford - Centre for Tropical Medicine and International Health, University of Birmingham - Institute of Microbiology & Infection, University of Glasgow - Institute of Health and Wellbeing, University of Edinburgh - Centre for Medical Informatics, Swansea University - Population Data Science, Public Health Scotland, University of Edinburgh - Centre for Medical Informatics, University of Oxford - ISARIC Global Support Centre, University of Edinburgh - Centre for Medical Informatics, University of Nottingham - School of Medicine, University of Edinburgh - Centre for Medical Informatics, University of Oxford - Centre for Tropical Medicine and International Health, University of Leicester - Department of Respiratory Sciences, University of Liverpool - Department of Public Health, Policy and Systems, University of Edinburgh - Centre for Medical Informatics, Lancaster University - Centre for Health Informatics, Computing and Statistics, University of Edinburgh - Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Glasgow - Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Edinburgh - Centre for Medical Informatics, University of Edinburgh - Usher Institute, University of Liverpool - Women’s and Children’s Health, University of Edinburgh - Department of Child Life and Health, University of Liverpool - Department of Public Health Policy and Systems, Public Health Wales - Communicable Disease Surveillance Centre, University of Liverpool - NIHR Health Protection Research Unit for Emerging and Zoonotic Infection, Imperial College London - National Heart and Lung Institute, University of Edinburgh - Roslin Institute, University of Liverpool - NIHR Health Protection Research Unit for Emerging and Zoonotic Infection and Independent

Imperial College London - Section of Infectious Diseases and Immunity, Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, Department of Infection and Immunity, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, Worldwide Influenza Centre, Francis Crick Institute, Worldwide Influenza Centre, Francis Crick Institute, The Wellington Hospital, The Wellington Hospital, The Wellington Hospital, Blood Borne Virus Unit, National Infection Service, Colindale Public Health England, Blood Borne Virus Unit, National Infection Service, Colindale Public Health England, Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, Imperial College London - Section of Virology, Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, Chromatin Structure and Mobile DNA Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, Structural Biology Science Technology Platform, Francis Crick Institute, King’s College London, Department of Virology, King’s College Hospital, Imperial College London - Department of Infectious Disease, Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, Imperial College London - Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, University of Oxford - The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford - Chinese Academy of Medical Science Oxford Institute (COI), Department of Infection and Immunity, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, University of Edinburgh - Roslin Institute, Imperial College London - National Heart and Lung Institute (NHLI), University of Liverpool - Health Protection Research Unit in Emerging and Zoonotic Infections, Independent, Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London and Imperial College London - Section of Virology

Clinical Neurosciences, Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, UK, University of Southampton, Clinical Neurosciences, Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, UK, University of Edinburgh - Roslin Institute, Imperial College London - National Heart and Lung Institute, University of Liverpool - NIHR Health Protection Research Unit for Emerging and Zoonotic Infection, Statistics, Mathematical Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Southampton, UK, University College London - MRC Clinical Trials Unit, University of Liverpool - Institute of Infection and Global Health, Newcastle University and Clinical Neurosciences, Clinical and Experimental Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, UK

University of Edinburgh - Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh - Centre for Medical Informatics, University of Edinburgh - Centre for Medical Informatics, University of Liverpool - NIHR Health Protection Research Unit for Emerging and Zoonotic Infection, Queen Elizabeth University Hospital, University of Liverpool - Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Oxford - International Severe Acute Respiratory and Emerging Infections Consortium (ISARIC), University of Edinburgh - Centre for Medical Informatics, University of Edinburgh - Centre for Medical Informatics, University of Sheffield - Department of Infection, Immunity & Cardiovascular Disease, University of Edinburgh - Centre for Medical Informatics, University of Edinburgh - Centre for Medical Informatics, University of Liverpool - Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Oxford - ISARIC Global Support Centre, University of Liverpool - Liverpool Clinical Trials Centre, Public Health England - Emerging Infections and Zoonoses Unit, University of Nottingham - Division of Epidemiology and Public Health, Imperial College London - National Heart and Lung Institute (NHLI), University of Edinburgh - Roslin Institute, University of Liverpool - Health Protection Research Unit in Emerging and Zoonotic Infections, University of Glasgow - Medical Research Council (MRC) and Independent

University of Edinburgh - Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, University of Liverpool, University of Liverpool, University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh - Western General Hospital, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, University of St. Andrews - School of Medicine, University of Edinburgh - Queen’s Medical Research Institute - Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Liverpool, University of Edinburgh - Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh - Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh and University of Edinburgh - Centre for Inflammation Research

University of Liverpool - National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Health Protection Research Unit (HPRU) in 31 Emerging and Zoonotic Infections, National Institute for Health Research (NIHR), National Institute for Health Research (NIHR), University of St. Andrews - Division of Infection and Global Health, HIV i-Base, Mortimer Market Centre, Central and North West London NHS Foundation Trust, Department of Global Health and Infection, Brighton and Sussex Medical School, University of Sussex, University of Edinburgh - Centre for Medical Informatics, University of Edinburgh - Centre for Medical Informatics, University of Liverpool - NIHR Health Protection Research Unit for Emerging and Zoonotic Infection, Imperial College London - National Heart and Lung Institute (NHLI), University of Edinburgh - Roslin Institute, National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) - Health Protection Research Unit in Blood Borne and Sexually Transmitted Infections, University of Liverpool - Health Protection Research Unit in Emerging and Zoonotic Infections and Independent

Imperial College London - Centre for Integrative System Biology and Bioinformatics, University of Edinburgh - The Roslin Institute & Royal (Dick), Imperial College London, University of Edinburgh - The Roslin Institute & Royal (Dick), Imperial College London - Centre for Integrative System Biology and Bioinformatics, Rockefeller University - St. Giles Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, University of Edinburgh - The Roslin Institute & Royal (Dick), Imperial College London, Independent, Independent, Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Necker Branch, Rockefeller University - St. Giles Laboratory of Human Genetics of Infectious Diseases, Imperial College London - Section of Virology, University of Edinburgh - Roslin Institute and Imperial College London

University of Oxford, University of Oxford, University of Oxford, St. George’s University of London - Institute of Infection & Immunity, University of Oxford, University of Oxford, University of Oxford - Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, University of Oxford - The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, St. George's University - Intensive Care Medicine, University of Cambridge, University of Oxford - Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford - Oxford Vaccine Group, University of Oxford, Centre for Human & Applied Physiological Sciences, School of Basic & Medical Biosciences, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, King's College, London, University of Oxford, University of Oxford, University of Oxford, St. George's University - General Intensive Care, University of Oxford, University of Oxford - Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford - Nuffield Department of Medicine, St George's, University of London, University of Oxford - Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, University of Oxford, University of Oxford - Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation TrustUniversity of Oxford - Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, University of Oxford - Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Kent - Viral Pseudotype Unit, Meso-­‐Scale Diagnostics, University of Oxford - Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust - Intensive Care Medicine, Independent, Independent, University of Oxford - Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford - The Jenner Institute, University of Edinburgh - Roslin Institute, University of Liverpool - Health Protection Research Unit in Emerging and Zoonotic Infections, Imperial College London - National Heart and Lung Institute (NHLI), Independent, Tel-Aviv University, Leidos Inc., University of Oxford - Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford - Chinese Academy of Medical Science Oxford Institute (COI), University of Oxford - Chinese Academy of Medical Science Oxford Institute (COI), University of Oxford, affiliation not provided to SSRN, Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, University of Oxford - Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, University of Oxford - Department of Zoology, University of Oxford - Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, St. George’s University of London - Institute of Infection & Immunity, University of Oxford - Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, University of Oxford - Department of Zoology and University of Oxford - Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research