Nations Unchained: Revolution, Empire, and the Collapse of the Westphalian Order

Abstract

This paper examines transformations of “world orders,” of the basic norms governing relations between powers and between powers and peoples. I present three historical transformations of the world order: First, the transformation at the end of the Eighteenth Century of the order in Europe based on the equality of states and the balance of power, into a world order based on nationalism and imperialism. Second, the transformation in the aftermath of World War II in which imperial domination was rejected, national self-determination affirmed, and territorial acquisition by force outlawed (what I call “1945 rules”). Third, the present collapse of 1945 rules in the face of the Russian invasion of the Ukraine and the annexation of Crimea. I assess these transformations with help from Nicholas Onuf and the English School of International Relations.

Keywords: empire, nationalism, Martin Wight, Hedley Bull, Thomas Paine, Vladimir Putin