Turnout, Family, and Gender Norms: The Political Incorporation of Women in Sweden (1921-1960)

Abstract

We investigate the historical process through which women mobilized at the ballot box and caught up with men's high turnout, employing a unique set of official electoral information in Sweden between 1921 and 1960 that records participation by gender, occupational group and marital status of all eligible voters. Although, in line with standard turnout models, women’s individual resources mattered, the (evolving) nature of gender norms played a crucial role in their mobilization. Under traditional gender norms, female participation was strongly related to marital status. Whereas married women, arguably following their husbands’ lead, voted at levels similar to men's, unmarried women participated much less. As gender norms modernized, emphasizing women’s personal and professional autonomy, the turnout gap between married and unmarried women narrowed down. That process happened asynchronically across social strata, paralleling the diffusion of modern gender norms: from urban upper classes first to rural areas last.

Keywords: political participation, turnout, gender, social norms