Measuring the Openness of AI Foundation Models: Competition and Policy Implications

Information & Communications Technology Law (2025)

27 Pages Posted: 14 Jun 2024 Last revised: 6 Mar 2025

See all articles by Thibault Schrepel

Thibault Schrepel

Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam; Stanford University's Codex Center; University Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne; Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Paris (Sciences Po)

Jason Potts

Royal Melbourne Institute of Technolog (RMIT University)

Date Written: May 14, 2024

Abstract

This paper provides the first comprehensive evaluation of AI foundation model licenses as drivers of innovation commons. We introduce our analysis by outlining how AI licenses regulate access privileges to the fundamental inputs of AI innovation commons. We show that AI licenses operate as a bottleneck, as their level of openness directly influences the flow of knowledge and information into the commons. We then introduce a new methodology for evaluating the openness of AI foundation models. Our methodology extends beyond purely technical considerations to more accurately reflect AI licenses’ contribution to innovation commons. We proceed to apply it to today’s most prominent models—including OpenAI’s GPT-4, Meta’s Llama 3, Google’s Gemini, Mistral’s 8×7B, and MidJourney’s V6—and find significant differences from existing AI openness rankings. We conclude by proposing concrete policy recommendations for regulatory and competition agencies interested in fostering AI commons based on our findings.

Keywords: Foundation models, large language models, LLMs, generative AI, competition, antitrust, open source, innovation commons, public policy, ChatGPT

JEL Classification: K21, K20, L17, L86, E14, B52, K24, 030, 031, 032, 033, 034, 038

Suggested Citation

Schrepel, Thibault and Potts, Jason, Measuring the Openness of AI Foundation Models: Competition and Policy Implications (May 14, 2024). Information & Communications Technology Law (2025), Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4827358

Thibault Schrepel (Contact Author)

Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam ( email )

De Boelelaan 1105
1081 HV Amsterdam
Netherlands

Stanford University's Codex Center ( email )

559 Nathan Abbott Way
Stanford, CA 94305-8610
United States

University Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne ( email )

France

Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Paris (Sciences Po) ( email )

27 rue Saint-Guillaume
Paris Cedex 07, 75337
France

Jason Potts

Royal Melbourne Institute of Technolog (RMIT University) ( email )

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