AI-Enabled Decision-Support Systems in the Joint Targeting Cycle: Legal Challenges, Risks, and the Human(e) Dimension

Abstract

As artificial intelligence (AI)-enabled technologies become increasingly integrated into military targeting operations, the legal, ethical, and operational challenges they present demand closer scrutiny. While much of the existing discourse has focused on autonomous weapon systems, comparatively little attention has been paid to AI-enabled decision-support systems (AI-DSS) and their evolving role within the Joint Targeting Cycle (JTC). This article addresses this gap by critically examining the assumptions underpinning the perceived benignity of AI-DSS, which are often framed as tools that merely augment, rather than influence, human decision-making. Drawing on a case study of the reported use of AI-DSS by the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) since October 7, 2023, we argue that these systems are increasingly implicated in core targeting functions such as target identification, selection, and nomination. Such integration has the potential to constrain or even exclude meaningful human involvement in legally significant decisions.

 

The article proceeds in three parts: first, we outline the JTC and how international humanitarian law, particularly the obligation to take precautions in attack, is operationalized within it. Second, we analyze the reported use of AI-DSS by the IDF, examining how these systems may shape decision-making processes and raise concerns about compliance with the principles of distinction and proportionality. Third, we explore broader implications for human-machine teaming, focusing on how cognitive bias, system error, and speed can distort oversight and accountability. We conclude with recommendations for reframing the debate on AI in targeting, urging regulators, militaries, and technologists to broaden their focus beyond AWS and address the overlooked legal and operational risks posed by AI-DSS. This article aims to catalyze more comprehensive, interdisciplinary engagement with the complexities of AI-DSS and their growing influence on the conduct of warfare.

Keywords: International Humanitarian Law, Artificial Intelligence, AI-enabled decision support systems, Principle of Precautions in Attack, Autonomous Weapons Systems, Human-Machine Teaming, Joint Targeting Cycle, Lavender, The Gospel, Where's Daddy?, Military AI