National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NHS), Northern Health, National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NHS), National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NHS), National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NHS), University College London - University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, Government of the United Kingdom - Queen Elizabeth Hospital Birmingham, Government of the United Kingdom - Queen Elizabeth Hospital Birmingham, The Walton Centre NHS Foundation Trust, The Walton Centre NHS Foundation Trust, The Walton Centre NHS Foundation Trust, The University of Manchester, The University of Manchester, The University of Manchester - Salford Royal Hospital, Government of the United Kingdom - North Bristol NHS Trust, University Hospital Southampton, University of Oxford - John Radcliffe Hospital, Cardiff University, University of Southampton - University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, King's College Hospital, Newcastle Upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Newcastle Upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Government of the United Kingdom - North Bristol NHS Trust, Government of the United Kingdom - Queen Elizabeth Hospital Birmingham, University College London, University College London - UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology and University of Oxford

University College London - Institute of Health Informatics, University of Liverpool, University of Liverpool, Swansea University - Population Data Science, Government of the United Kingdom - Royal Free London NHS Foundation Trust, University College London - University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, University College London, University College London - Institute of Health Informatics, University of Edinburgh, University of Strathclyde, University of Strathclyde - Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Science, King’s College London - ESRC Centre for Society and Mental Health, Keele University - Research Institute for Primary Care and Health Sciences, University of Leicester - Leicester Diabetes Centre, Swansea University - Population Data Science, University of Edinburgh - Edinburgh Medical School, University of Liverpool, The Walton Centre NHS Foundation Trust, affiliation not provided to SSRN, Health Data Research UK, University of Liverpool - Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics and Independent

University of Liverpool - Liverpool Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Liverpool - Liverpool Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Liverpool - Liverpool Centre for Cardiovascular Science and The Walton Centre NHS Foundation Trust

The Walton Centre NHS Foundation Trust - Department of Neurosurgery, University of Liverpool - Liverpool Clinical Trials Centre, Bangor University - Centre for Health Economics and Medicines Evaluation, University of Liverpool - Liverpool Clinical Trials Centre, University of Liverpool - Liverpool Clinical Trials Centre, University of Liverpool - Liverpool Clinical Trials Centre, University of Liverpool - Liverpool Clinical Trials Centre, Bangor University - Centre for Health Economics and Medicines Evaluation, The Walton Centre NHS Foundation Trust, The Walton Centre NHS Foundation Trust - Department of Neurosurgery, Leeds Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust - Leeds General Infirmary, Solent NHS Trust, Highpoint Venue - Pain Clinic, NHS Foundation Trust - Cambridge University Hospitals, University of Cambridge - Academic Division of Neurosurgery, Bangor University - Centre for Health Economics and Medicines Evaluation (CHEME), The Walton Centre NHS Foundation Trust and University of Liverpool - Liverpool Clinical Trials Centre