Gender and the Mid-Life Balancing Act -Menopause, Caregiving and Economic Participation

Abstract

This study employs casual inference to examine how menopause transition and midlife caregiving shape women's economic participation, using longitudinal data from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing (ELSA) (2002-2019). While menopause contributes to a widening gender gap in economic participation, its effects on employed women's earnings and working hours are more nuanced, often manifesting in subtle shifts rather than explicit reductions. In contrast, self-employed women strategically adjust work patterns, preserving income despite reduced hours. However, when the menopause transition coincides with caregiving responsibilities, we observe a formal reduction in working hours, indicating that workplace flexibility may be insufficient to accommodate these dual pressures. Overall, however, our findings highlight the resilience of mid-life women and underscore the need for workplace policies that prioritise flexibility, proactive job adjustments, and tailored support-particularly for self-employed workers, who remain underserved. As economies adapt to ageing workforces, addressing the causes of mid-life participation gaps is essential to long-term economic resilience.

Keywords: Economic participation, Employment, Self-Employment, Gender, Menopause

JEL Classification: J16, J21, J22, J14