University College London, University of Liverpool - Department of Public Health, Policy and Systems, University of Liverpool, University of Edinburgh - College of Medicine & Veterinary Medicine, UK Health Security Agency, University Hospitals of Leicester NHS Trust, Trinity College Dublin, Liverpool City Council, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, University of Oxford, UK Health Security Agency, University of Liverpool - Department of Health Data Science, The University of Manchester, The University of Manchester, Government of the United Kingdom - Public Health Scotland, Welsh Government, University of Oxford, Nuffield Department of Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, Imperial College London, King’s College London, University of Liverpool - Health Protection Research Unit in Emerging and Zoonotic Infections, University of Liverpool - Department of Public Health, Policy and Systems, University of Liverpool - Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, The Directorate of Public Health at Solihull Metropolitan Borough Council, UK Health Security Agency, University of Leeds, University of Bristol and University of Liverpool - Department of Public Health Policy and Systems

University of Oxford, University of Oxford, University of Oxford, St. George’s University of London - Institute of Infection & Immunity, University of Oxford, University of Oxford, University of Oxford - Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, University of Oxford - The Jenner Institute, University of Oxford, St. George's University - Intensive Care Medicine, University of Cambridge, University of Oxford - Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford - Oxford Vaccine Group, University of Oxford, Centre for Human & Applied Physiological Sciences, School of Basic & Medical Biosciences, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, King's College, London, University of Oxford, University of Oxford, University of Oxford, St. George's University - General Intensive Care, University of Oxford, University of Oxford - Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford - Nuffield Department of Medicine, St George's, University of London, University of Oxford - Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, University of Oxford, University of Oxford - Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation TrustUniversity of Oxford - Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, University of Oxford - Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Kent - Viral Pseudotype Unit, Meso-­‐Scale Diagnostics, University of Oxford - Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, Guy's and St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust - Intensive Care Medicine, Independent, Independent, University of Oxford - Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford - The Jenner Institute, University of Edinburgh - Roslin Institute, University of Liverpool - Health Protection Research Unit in Emerging and Zoonotic Infections, Imperial College London - National Heart and Lung Institute (NHLI), Independent, Tel Aviv University, Leidos Inc., University of Oxford - Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford - Chinese Academy of Medical Science Oxford Institute (COI), University of Oxford - Chinese Academy of Medical Science Oxford Institute (COI), University of Oxford, affiliation not provided to SSRN, Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Mahidol University - Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, University of Oxford - Department of Zoology, University of Oxford - Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, St. George’s University of London - Institute of Infection & Immunity, University of Oxford - Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, University of Oxford - Department of Zoology and University of Oxford - Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research